World History
Ch. 2: Foundation of Indian Society
The Laws of Manu
This law code was written between the first century B.C.E. and the second or third century C.E., constituting
the first systematic compilation of Indian law. The Laws of Manu maintained a close relationship with
Hinduism, and indeed Manu, the creator god, gave divine sanction to the social system. These laws governed
the everyday life of the Indian people, from the basic classification of the caste system to male/female
relations.
But to protect this whole creation, the lustrous one [Manu] made separate innate activities
for those born of his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet. For priests, he ordained teaching and
learning, sacrificing for themselves and sacrificing for others, giving and receiving. Protecting
his subjects, giving, having sacrifices performed, studying and remaining unaddicted to the
sensory objects are … for a ruler. Protecting his livestock … trading, lending money, and
farming the land are for a commoner. The Lord assigned only one activity to a servant; serving
these [other] classes without resentment.
A ruler in adversity may also make a living by all of these [means]; but he should never
be so proud as to assume the livelihood of his betters. If a man of the lowest caste should,
through greed, make his living by the innate activities of his superiors, the king should confiscate
his wealth and banish him immediately. One’s own duty, [even] without any good qualities, is
better than someone else’s duty well done; for a man who makes his living by someone else’s
duty immediately falls from [his own] caste. A commoner who cannot make a living by his own
duty may also subsist by the livelihood of a servant; but he must not commit actions that [he]
should not do, and he should stop when he can. If a servant is unable to engage in the service of
the twice-born and is on the brink of losing his sons and wife, he may make a living by the innate
activities of a manual laborer, practicing those activities of a manual laborer and those various
handicrafts by which the twice-born are served.
A priest who remains on his own path and does not engage in the commoner’s livelihood,
even when he is fainting and starving for lack of a livelihood, should act in keeping with the
following law: a priest in adversity may accept gifts from anyone, for the assertion that “What is
purifying can be defiled” is not established by law. Accepting gifts from despicable people or
teaching them or sacrificing for them is not a fault in priests, for they are the equals of fire or
water. A man who eats the food of anyone, no matter who, when he is on the brink of losing his
life is not smeared with evil, just as the sky is not smeared with mud…
World History
Chapter 2: Foundations of Indian Society
A ruler in extremity who takes even a quarter [of the crop] is free from offense if he
protects his subjects to his utmost ability. His own duty is conquest, and he must not turn his
back on a challenge; when he has protected the commoner with his sword, he may collect the just
tax from him: the tax on grain from the commoners is one-eight, [or] one-twentieth… Servants,
artisans, and craftsmen should give him the service of their innate activities…
A servant should not amass wealth, even if he has the ability, for a servant who has
amassed wealth annoys priests…
With whatever limb a man of a low caste does hurt to a man of the three highest castes,
even that limb shall be cut off; that is the teaching of Manu. He who raises his hand or stick
shall have his hand cut off; he who in anger kicks with his foot shall have his foot cut off.
A low-caste man who tries to place himself on the same seat with a man of a high caste
shall be branded on his hip and be banished, or the king shall cause his buttock to be gashed. If
out of arrogance he spits on a superior the king shall cause both his lips to be cut off; if he
urinates on him, the penis; if he breaks wind against him, the anus…
In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, and when
her lord is dead, to her sons; a woman must never be independent. Though destitute of virtue, or
seeking pleasure [elsewhere], or devoid of good qualities, [yet] a husband must be constantly
worshipped as a god by a faithful wife.
A virtuous wife who after the death of her husband constantly remains chaste, reaches
heaven, though she have no son, just like those chaste men. But a woman who from a desire to
have offspring violates her duty toward her dead husband, brings on herself disgrace in this
world, and loses her place with her husband in heaven.
A wife, a son, and a slave, these three are declared to have no property: the wealth which
they earn is [acquired] for him to whom they belong.
[When creating them] Manu allotted to women [a love of their] bed, [of their] seat and
[of] ornament, impure desires, wrath, dishonesty, malice, and bad conduct…
A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him, or a man of
twenty-four a girl of eight years of age; if the performance of his duties would otherwise be
impeded, he must marry sooner.
From The Laws of Manu, trans. with an introduction and notes by Wendy Doniger and with Brian K. Smith
(Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1991).