Observational Research
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Observation
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Naturalistic
Systematic
Case studies
Archival research
Observing Behavior: Descriptive Research
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Descriptive research involves
the direct observation and
description of behavior.
If people know they are being
observed, their behavior may
change. This is called
reactivity.
Naturalistic Observation
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Charles Darwin’s
voyage on the HMS
Beagle (the basis for his
theory of natural selection)
Naturalistic Observation
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Jane Goodall's study
of chimpanzees
Participant Observation
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Participant observation -- the person
collecting the data participates in the
process being observed
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Disguised (covert) vs undisguised (overt)
Rosenhan (1973) On Being Sane in Insane
Places
John Howard Griffin (1960) Black
Like Me
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“I learned within a very few hours that no one was
judging me by my qualities as a human individual
and everyone was judging me by my pigment. As
soon as white men or women saw me, they
automatically assumed I possessed a whole set
of false characteristics (false not only to me but to
all black men). They could not see me or any
other black man as a human individual because
they buried us under the garbage of their
stereotyped view of us. They saw us as “different”
from themselves in fundamental ways: we were
irresponsible; we were different in our sexual
morals; we were intellectually limited; we had a
God-given sense of rhythm; we were lazy and
happy-go-lucky; we loved watermelon and fried
chicken… Always, in every encounter even with
“good whites,” we had the feeling that the white
person was not talking with us but with his image
of us.
Criticisms of Participant
Observation
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By joining the group, they change it in some way
Groups are unaware they are being observed
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May be unethical
People don’t liked to be spied on, feel betrayed,
foolish
Observer bias
Hard to quantify unstructured data
Structured Observational Methods
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Structured
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Researcher must meticulously develop coding system
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Quantitative methods in which behaviors are observed and
recorded with objective system
Code things relevant to research
Coding system is lens of research
Interrater reliability
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Extent to which the ratings of different observers are in
agreement
Structured Observational Methods
 Gender
differences &
obedience to stop signs
(McKelvie & Schamer, 1988)
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Men were as likely to obey (36%) as to
disregard the stop sign (36%)
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Women were more likely to obey (62%) than
disregard the stop sign (16%)
Observational Research
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Gender, group size, and amount of beer
consumed (Geller, Russ, & Altomari, 1986)
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Observed 56 females 187 males at local bars
(university students)
Results
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Drank more in a group
Males drank more than females
 Function of container type
Observational Analysis: Coding System
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Interaction Process
Analysis
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Observational coding
system developed by
Bales to measure 6
task and 6
socioemotional
activities in a group
Case Studies
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An intensive description and
analysis of a single
individual, organization, or
event
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Advantages:
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Informing us on rare, unusual
or noteworthy conditions not
easily studied otherwise
Disadvantages:
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Causes cannot be identified
Case Study: Love Canal
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Levine’s study of Love Canal residents
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Research Questions: Why did such an event
occur? How did community leaders respond?
How did residents cope?
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Data sources:
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Reviewed historical records
Newscasts & newspapers
Public meetings
Met & interviewed residents & officials
Case Study: Phineas Gage
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September 13, 1848
Cavendish, Vermont
Gage was a foreman for a railway construction
gang
An explosion sent a 3’ 7” tamping iron through
his skull, landing 25 yards behind him
Case Study: Phineas Gage
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Went back to work several months later,
but his personality had changed
He worked taking care of horses and
working on a farm for the next 11 years
In February, 1860, he began to have
epileptic seizures and died May 21, 1860
His body was exhumed in 1867 so
scientists could study his skull
The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat
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Dr P., was a successful
musician
Dr P. could only recognize
objects if he could make out
a distinct feature.
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He recognized his brother
because of his big teeth
Asked to identify a glove
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‘A continuous
surface…infolded on itself. It
appears to have…five
outpouchings, …’
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Mistook his wife for a
hat
Archival Research
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Using previously compiled information to answer research
questions
 Researcher doesn’t collect original data
 Analyzes existing information
Types of archival research data
 Statistical records
 Survey archives
 Written records
Examples sources:
 census data, hospital records, historical documents,
police reports, speeches made by politicians, marriage
licenses, weather reports, outcomes of sporting events
Important Archival Findings
 Increased
risk of cancer if exposed to
radiation, asbestos, vinyl chloride, etc.
 Congenital
malformation of infants if
mother had German measles during
pregnancy
Archival Research: Gurr (1968)
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Theory = violence rate related to a feeling of deprivation
1100 observations of violence collected from New York Times
Index, Newsyear (annual index of Facts on File), and the
Africa Digest, Annual Register of Events in Africa,
Hispanic_American Report, and several case studies
published as books.
Quantitative indices of strife: number of participants, number
of casualties, number of days it lasted, etc.
Quantitative indices of deprivation: economic downturns,
political suppression, etc.
Found a significant relationship
Archival Research: Durkheim (1951)
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Theory = suicide is related to lack of integration into a social group
Codes for social group integration = religious, familial, political
Obtained suicide rates from public records
Results= suicide is lower in
 Catholics
 married people
 people with children
 periods of national unification and fervor
Archival Research: Miller (1927)
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Is there a general tendency to vote a candidate out of office
whenever your personal budget is stressed (regardless of the
actual cause)?
Index of stress = rainfall in agricultural regions
Index of voting = candidate retained or replaced by opposing
candidate
Period chosen 1825-1924
Results=
 above average rainfall = candidates retained
 below average rainfall = candidates replaced