Tissues, Organs, and Systems

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms
Bio- living ology- study of
Therefore- the study of living things

Microscopes work by expanding a small-scale field of view. Microscopes allow us to examine life forms, both plant and animal, and understand their function.
1590’s-Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans were first to develop the compound microscope.
Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale.
Magnification on a microscope refers to the amount or degree to which the object observed is enlarged.

Ice cream under an electron microscope
Onion cell under a compound (light ) microscope

The Microscope
Part
Stage
Clips
Diaphragm:
Objective lenses
Function supports the microscope slide allows light to pass through holds slide in position controls light reaching slide magnify objects
3 different magnifications
Low power 4x, medium power 10x, & high power 40x
Revolving nosepiece
Body tube holds and rotates objective lenses
Contains the eyepiece
Supports the objective lenses
Eyepiece (ocular lens) The part you look through to view the object
Magnifies the image of the object, usually by 10x
Coarse-adjustment knob
Moves the body tube up or down to get the object into focus
Fine-adjustment knob Moves the body tube to get the object into sharp focus
Light source Sends light through the object being viewed

1.Always carry the microscope with one hand on the Arm and one hand on the
Base. Carry it close to your body.
2.Remove the cover, plug the microscope in, and place the excess cord on the table.
3. Always start and end with Low Power
4. Place the slide on the microscope stage, with the specimen directly over the
center of the glass circle on the stage
(directly over the light).

5. If, and ONLY if, you are on LOW POWER, lower the objective lens to the lowest
point, then focus using first the coarse knob, then the fine focus knob. The specimen will be in focus when the LOW POWER objective is close to the lowest point, so start there and focus by slowly raising
the lens. If you can’t get it at all into focus using the coarse knob, then switch to the fine focus knob.

6. Adjust the Diaphragm as you look through the
Eyepiece, and you will see that MORE detail is visible when you allow in LESS light! Too much light will give the specimen a washed-out appearance. TRY IT OUT!!
7. Once you have found the specimen on Low
Power center the specimen in your field of view, then, without changing the focus knobs, switch it to High Power.
8. Once you have it on High Power remember that you only use the fine focus knob!

Cells are all over our bodies. Right now you have about a trillion cells performing all different tasks to help keep you alive.
If it’s living, it’s composed of cells.
Cells are the smallest and most basic unit of life.

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All living things are composed of one or more cells
The cell is the basic unit of life
All cells come from pre-existing cells

Cells are made up of many different
organelles that each have a particular structure and function within the cell.
Animal and plant cells have a different structure. Animals cells have some different organelles compared to plant cells.

growth reproduce repair
Have cells Characteristics of Living Things
Require energy
Produce waste
Have a life span
Respond to environment

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Plasma Cell Membrane
Function
Double-layered membrane
Gives support to cell
Allows materials to move in and out of cell. (gate keeper)

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Cytoplasm
Function
Jelly-like substance
Keep organelles in place

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
Function
“Power house” of the cell
Produce energy for cell.
Cells that need a lot of energy will have lots of mitochondria (muscle cells)

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Endoplasmic reticulum
Function
Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane
Stores, separates, and serves as cell's transport system

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Ribosomes
Function
Make proteins

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Golgi body
Function
Process, package and store products released from the cell

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Lysosomes
Function
Digestion in single cell organism
(amoeba)
Multicell Organism- defence- breaks down old organelles

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Nucleus
Function
Control centre of cell
Directs cell activity

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Chromosomes
Function
Thread-like structures
Inside nucleus
Contain DNA (genetic information)

Animal Cell Structure & Function
Structure
Cilia
Function
Hair-like projections on cell membrane
Detect movement or help cell move

Part of biology labs is knowing how to draw scientific drawings.
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Use a blank piece of paper
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Place the drawing in the centre of the page
Look at the specimen, note details and sizes before you draw.
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Use a sharp pencil NO PENS
Your drawing should be large enough to show detail
Never shade or colour your diagram. If something is darker you must stipple (make many tiny dots)

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Labels should be printed in ink.
Labels should usually be placed in a neat vertical column to the right of the drawing
Pointers for labels should be fine, straight, horizontal unbroken lines drawn with a pencil and a ruler. Pointers should never cross each other and arrowheads should not be used.
Drawings need to have a title, name and date.
At the bottom of the page should be the power of the microscope, magnification of the drawing and the actual size of the object drawn. Calculations for these need to be shown
Put a title with your name and date.

DNA-
Almost all the parts of a cell are controlled by a cell’s DNA. DNA is the genetic information that makes up different species.
DNA differs not only from species to species but organism to organism.

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DNA is made up of long stands called
chromosomes. Each species has a particular number of chromosomes.
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Each of us have slightly different DNA which gives us variation in the way we look, our abilities, or intelligence etc.

Growth
In order for a multicellular organism to grow it must increase the number of cells through cell division. Cells cannot simply grow bigger and bigger for a number of reasons.
1. If they become damaged it would be impossible to replace them
2. Nutrients would have a hard time getting to all the organelles that need them
3. Waste removal would take way to long

Repair
In order to heal broken bones or scrapes cells need to be able to repair themselves.
They do this by replacing old or damaged cells in that area. If you get a cut on your knee the cells that are damaged in that area will be replaced with new cells. The good cells round the injured area begin to reproduce quickly in order to repair the injured area that is cut on your knee.

Reproduction
Axsexual reproduction- one parent needed to reproduce. DNA divides in half and will have exactly the same DNA
Sexual reproduction- two parents needed to reproduce. (sperm and egg cells) DNA from both parents.

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In humans or sexual reproducing species the offspring will carry on some of the genetic information from each parent.
In sexual reproducing species each parent will give a sex chromosome.
Males have XY chromosomes
Females have XX chromosomes

This punnett square shows us the possibility of a couple having a boy or a girl.

Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes.
Each chromosome is paired up with another, making 23 pairs.
Karyotypes describe the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope
.

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A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged and numbered by size, from largest to smallest. This arrangement helps scientists quickly identify chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic disorder.
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To make a karyotype, scientists take a picture of someone's chromosomes, cut them out and match them up using size, banding pattern and centromere position as guides.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/ka ryotype/

DNA is copied in to each and every single cell in our bodies.
In some instances there is a change in the genetic information which causes a mutation in each cell of the body.
We can use karyotyping to see these different types of mutations.

Down syndrome is caused when there is an extra 21st chromosome.
In some cases there may be one parent who is a carrier of the genetic mutation or there may be breaks in the chromosomes leading to these combining together.

Phase
Interphase
IN TERPHASE:
( IN between dividing)
Sketch Summary
The chromosomes are duplicated just before mitosis.
They remain in their
'unwound' state, and are therefore invisible.
The centrioles, are also duplicated. Centrioles and the tubules make up a centrosome.

Phase
Prophase
PRO PHASE:
(First dividing phasePro s are
#1)
Sketch Summary
The chromosomes become visible. The two identical copies of each chromosome are called chromatids. Each chromatid pair is joined together, forming an 'xshaped' structure.
The centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell, and microtubules begin to grow out from them. The microtubules direct the metaphase chromosomes towards the middle of the cell.

Sketch Phase
Metaphase
M ETAPHASE
( M IDDLE)
Summary
The chromosomes are lined up along a plane at the middle of the cell. Sister chromatids are attached to microtubules from opposite ends of the cell.

Phase
Anaphase
ANAPHASE
(APART)
Sketch Summary
The two sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite ends of the cell.
This allows the 2 new cells being formed to have one copy of every chromosome that was in the original cell.
The cell begins to pinch inwards from the middle where the chromatids were in metaphase.

Phase
Telophase
TELOPHASE
(TWO
NUCLEI)
Sketch Summary
The two sister chromatids are now at opposite ends of the cell.
In each new daughter cell, the nuclear membrane and other organelles begin to re-assemble and the chromosomes are
'unwound'.

Phase
Cytokinesis
CYTOKINESIS
(Cytoplasm splits)
Sketch Summary
In the middle where the chromatids were in metaphase the cytoplasm pinches inward until the cell is divided in two (cytokinesis).

http://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/howthebodyworks/Stages-of-
Mitosis.aspx?articleID=10173&categoryID=XG-nh2-01a