TOPIC 5
Fed Policy and Money Markets
1
Outline
•
What is Money?
•
What does affect the supply of Money?
•
–
How the banking system works?
–
What is the Fed and how does it work?
–
What is a monetary policy?
What does affect the demand of Money?
–
Asset Portfolio Decision
–
Quantitative Theory of Money
•
Equilibrium in the Money Market
•
The LM curve
2
Overview of Money and The Banking System
3
Money
•
“Money” is the economic term for assets that are widely used and
accepted as payment.
•
The forms of money have been very different: from shells to gold to cigarettes
(Eastern Europe and German Prisoners Of the War camps)
•
Most prices are measured in units of money → understanding the role of
money is important to understand inflation.
•
Many economists believe that money has also impact on real variables (mostly
in the short run)
4
Three Functions of Money
1. Medium of exchange: Money permits trade of goods and services at lower
cost (in terms of time and effort)
•
Barter is inefficient because is difficult and time-consuming to find the trading
partner.
•
Other benefit: allows specialization (and rises productivity)
1. Unit of account: Money is the basic unit for measuring economic value
•
Given that goods and services are mostly exchanged for money, it is natural to
express economic value in terms of money
•
Caveat: In countries with volatile inflation, money is a poor unit of account
because prices must be changed frequently. More stable units of account used
(dollars or gold), even if transactions use local currency.
2. Store of Value: money is a way of storing wealth.
•
Other types of assets may pay higher returns, BUT money is also a medium of
exchange.
5
Measures of Money
•
The distinction between monetary and non-monetary assets is controversial.
•
Example: MMMFs (money market mutual funds) are organizations that sell
shares to the public and invest in short-term government and corporate debt.
MMFs pay low return and allow for checks (with fee)…Are they Money?
•
There are two main official measures of money stock, called monetary
aggregates:
1. M1: the most narrow definition, includes mainly currencies and balances
held in checking accounts.
2. M2: includes everything in M1 plus other “money like” components:
saving deposits, small time deposits, MMMFs, MMDAs (money market
deposit accounts), etc..
6
Money Supply
•
Money supply is the amount of money available in an economy
•
In modern economies, money supply is affected by:
1. Central Banks (the Federal Reserve System in the United States). The
central bank is a government institution responsible for monetary policies
within an economy.
2. Depositary Institutions. Deposit Institutions are privately owned banks
and thrift institutions that accept deposits from and make loans directly to
the public.
3. The public. The public includes every person or firm (except banks) that
holds money in currency or deposits (think of money in your pocket or
money in your firms “petty cash” drawer.
7
The Banking System: An Introduction
Bank Assets and Liabilities:
Assets:
Liabilities:
Loans (TL) + Reserves (TR)
Deposits (TD) (and potentially other stuff).
Reserves = liquid assets held by the bank to meet the demand for
withdrawals by depositors or to pay checks
How do banks make money?
They Lend.
How much do they lend?
Must keep a minimum amount of reserves
(required by law).
Definition:
m = required reserve ratio
8
The Banking System: An Introduction
Fractional reserve banking:
Banks hold only a fraction of their deposits in
reserve.
Reserve-deposit ratio:
= required reserves/deposits = m
Fractional reserve banking:
→
m < 1 (100% reserve banking → m = 1)
Assume banks lend all they can:
-
TR = m*TD
Implies banks only hold required reserves
Implications:
-
-
TD = TL + TR
(money held within the banking system)
ΔTD = ΔTL + ΔTR (equation holds in changes)
9
The Banking System: An Example
Suppose I put $500 in the bank (remove it from under my mattress).
We call the $500 that starts the process the ‘Initial Deposit’ (ID)
Two Strong Assumptions: 1) Suppose that no one else in the economy holds cash.
2) Suppose banks only hold required reserves.
Minor Assumption:
Suppose that m = 0.1.
What happens in the banking system:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step infinity:
Deposits increase by $500 (initial deposit).
Then, Deposits increase by another $450.
Then, Deposits increase by another $405.
………….(keep increasing)
………….(keep increasing)
Why do deposits keep increasing? LOANS!!!!
10
The Banking System: An Example
Step 1:
Assets
TR $ 500
TRr = .1*500 = 50
Step 2:
→
Assets
TR $ 500
TL $ 450
TRr = .1*950 = 95
Step 3:
Liabilities
TD $500
Liabilities
TD $950
→
Assets
TR $ 500
TL $ 855
TRr = .1* 1355 = 135.5
ΔTL = TR – TRr = 450
ΔTL = TR – TRr = 405
Liabilities
TD $ 1355
→
ΔTL = TR – TRr = 364.5
The process continues ….. Loans and deposits expand up to a point TRr (required
reserves) = TR (actual reserves).
That is, TD = TR / m = 5000 !
11
The Money Multiplier: Formula Intuition
Total Change in Deposits:
= ID + ID (1-m) + ID(1-m)2 + …
= ID (1 + (1-m) + (1-m)2 + … )
= ID (1/m)
Simple Money Multiplier
μm = 1/m
TD = (1/m) ID
I want to stress that above equation only holds if:
– There are no holding of currency out of the banking system
– Banks may only hold required reserves
12
A More Realist Model: Money Supply and Monetary Base
More Definitions:
MS
TC
BASE
= Money Supply
= Total Currency in Circulation (held outside banking system)
= Monetary base
Some Formulas:
MS = TC + TD
(Money = money held in banks + money
held outside banks)
ΔMS = ΔTC + ΔTD
ΔMS = ΔTC + ΔTR + ΔTL
(Equation holds in changes)
(Substitute in change ΔTD = ΔTR + ΔTL)
BASE = TC + TR
(All the physical currency in the economy)
Base
= actual currency in the economy (held in the banks as reserves or held by
the public outside the banking system)
13
Money Supply and Monetary Base
Combining the two definitions (for MS and Base) we get:
MS/BASE = (TC + TD) / (TC + TR)
Define:
•
•
TC/TD = cu = currency/deposit ratio.
Depends on the amount of money the public wants to hold as
currency vs deposits.
The public can increases or reduces cu, by withdrawing or depositing currency
Recall TR/TD = reserves/deposits ratio determined by the banks + regulation
(Define m* = actual reserve ratio held by banks such that: m* ≥ m )
With some algebra, we can re-write the Money supply as:
MS = [(cu + 1)/(cu + m*) ]* BASE
14
More Generally….
Remember:
MS = [(cu + 1)/(cu + m*) ]* BASE
If cu > 0 and m* > m, the money multiplier can be expressed as:
μ*m = (cu + 1)/(cu + m*)
- μ*m > 1 as long as m < 1!
•
- The Money multiplier decreases with cu!
Role of the public
- The Money multiplier decreases with m*!
Role of the banks
Holding the base constant, the money supply (MS) will fall if people prefer
holding cash outside of banking system (cu increases) or if banks start
holding excess reserves (m* increases above m).
15
Overview of The Federal Reserve
16
What is the Fed?
Overview
Quasi Public agency that oversees the U.S. banking system.
For the most part, independent of Executive and Legislative branches.
7 of the governing members (Governors) at the Fed are Presidential
Appointments with Senate Confirmation (like Supreme Court Justices).
Has its own budget
12 member governing board – the 7 above members plus 5 rotating members
from the Federal reserve branch banks (privately owned).
17
What Part of the Money Supply Is Controlled by Fed?
Remember (from previous slide):
MS = [(cu + 1)/(cu + m*) ]* BASE
Fed controls:
Base
m (by law - the required reserve ratio)
m* (by influencing the discount rate and other policies)
Fed does not perfectly control the money supply any time:
cu > 0 (some people hold currency outside of banking system)
m* > m (banks hold excess reserves)
If cu = 0 and m = m*, MS = Base/m = Base μm
=
TR μm
18
How Does the Fed Control Money Supply?
How can the Fed affect money supply (and thereby interest rates)?
By creating reserves.
a) Open Market Operations (change the monetary base directly)
b) Reserve Ratio (not used very much – change the money multiplier)
c) Discount Window (discount rate – change the money multiplier)
d) Paying Interest on Excess Reserves (change the money multiplier!)
e) New Instruments (TARP, etc. – increase the money multiplier/base)
Note:
The discount rate/new instruments could increase the money supply by
inducing banks to hold less “excess reserves” (by brining m* close to m).
19
Notes on Central Banks
• The Central Bank is The Banks’ Bank. The Central Bank operates a clearinghouse for
bank checks. Each member bank has an account with the Central Bank. In the U.S. the
deposits that banks have with the Fed are called federal funds.
• A closely related term, which is not specific to the U.S., is banks’ reserves (which consist
of federal funds plus “vault cash”, or currency in the bank’ s cash machines, teller drawers,
and vault).
• A check written against private bank A and deposited with private bank B reduces bank A’s
federal funds and increases bank B’s federal funds. Thus banks want federal funds so they
can honor check withdrawals. They want vault cash to honor cash withdrawals.
Upshot: banks need reserves to honor withdrawals.
• Neither the Fed nor other major Central Banks target growth rates of the money supply
(which consists of currency plus various measures of liquid assets like deposits).
• Fed targets the Federal Funds rate.
20
What is the federal funds rate?
• Federal funds are the deposits of private banks with the Fed.
• The federal funds market consists of private banks borrowing and lending their
federal funds amongst each other overnight.
• The federal funds rate is the interest rate on these overnight loans. It is set by
supply and demand, not by the Fed.
• The Fed can change the supply of federal funds through open market
operations, exerting a powerful indirect effect on the fed funds rate.
• The Fed targets the federal funds rate and carries out open market operations to
keep the actual rate near the target rate.
21
What are Open Market Operations?
Open market operations = Central Bank purchases and sales of government
securities on the open market.
Open market purchase (sale) = Central Bank purchases (sells) government
securities. The seller (buyer) receives (uses) federal funds as payment.
federal funds
=
reserves
Private Banks
Central Bank
Government Bonds
22
A Fed purchase of government securities …
• Raises the supply of federal funds. More federal funds means they are cheaper
to borrow, so a lower federal funds rate. (An increase in the supply of federal
funds lowers their “price”);
• Drives up the price of those securities, which lowers their yield. A lower yield
means a lower interest rate on government securities;
• Leaves banks flush with reserves. Banks find it profitable to convert some of their
new zero-interest-earning reserves into loans (which in turn creates more deposits,
raising the money supply). To get people/firms to borrow more (take the new
loans they are offering), banks lower the interest rate on the loans.
Bottom Line: A Fed purchase of government securities lowers i.
23
Notes on FOMC directives
The Federal Reserve Open Market Committee (FOMC) meets every 6 weeks and
issues a directive to the trading desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
Fed Time: the Desk carries out open market operations between 11:30 and 11:45 ET
each trading day to keep the actual fed funds rate near the target.
The FOMC directive is also asymmetric or symmetric:
Symmetric:
No bias. Neutral stance. Just as likely to raise as to lower the target next.
Asymmetric:
A bias toward easing (more likely to lower than raise the target next) or a bias
toward tightening (more likely to raise than lower the target next).
The symmetry of the directive is not public until over 6 weeks after each meeting.
Look at the federal funds rate futures in the WSJ to see what the market thinks.
24
Federal Reserve’s Lending
• The discount rate is the interest rate on direct loans from the Fed to private banks.
The Fed sets the discount rate.
• Discount window loans used to play a minor role in Fed policy (primary and
secondary credit discount loan since 2003)
• With the recent crisis, more banks have used discount windows loans together
with new borrowing channels.
• New Monetary Policy instryments: Term Auction Facility (TAF), Term AssetBacked Securities Loan Facility (TALF), Commercial Paper Funding Facilities
(CPFF), …
25
Monetary Base
2007-12
2008-01
2008-05
2008-06
2008-07
2008-08
2008-09
2008-10
2008-11
2008-12
2009-1
2009-2
2009-3
2009-4
2009-5
2009-6
2009-7
2009-8
2009-9
2009-10
2009-11
2009-12
836,432
831,104
833,974
839,084
846,455
847,290
908,029
1,132,519
1,441,048
1,663,861
1,700,775
1,554,130
1,639,588
1,749,802
1,770,208
1,680,630
1,666,249
1,705,407
1,801,506
1,936,564
2,018,813
2,017.698
Total reserves of
Total borrowings
depository
Required reserves of
of depository
institutions
depository institutions
institutions
42,701
44,065
45,106
43,923
44,106
44,107
102,568
314,909
609,506
821,227
858,418
700,968
779,954
881,555
901,293
809,019
795,568
829,366
922,758
1,056,405
1,140,488
1,138,633
40,932
42,425
43,093
41,649
42,129
42,116
42,517
47,005
50,453
53,815
60,173
57,459
55,315
57,175
57,192
57,641
62,560
63,515
62,681
61,673
63,200
63,187
15,430
45,660
155,780
171,278
165,664
168,078
290,105
648,319
698,786
653,565
563,496
582,497
612,111
558,194
525,448
438,722
366,961
331,450
306,827
265,058
217,307
169,927
Non borrowed
reserves of dep.
institutions
27,271
-1,595
-110,674
-127,355
-121,558
-123,972
-187,537
-333,410
-89,280
167,661
294,922
118,470
167,843
323,361
375,845
370,297
428,607
497,916
615,931
791,347
923,181
968,706
26
Monetary Base
2007-12
2008-01
2008-05
2008-06
2008-07
2008-08
2008-09
2008-10
2008-11
2008-12
2009-1
2009-2
2009-3
2009-4
2009-5
2009-6
2009-7
2009-8
2009-9
2009-10
2009-11
2009-12
836,432
831,104
833,974
839,084
846,455
847,290
908,029
1,132,519
1,441,048
1,663,861
1,700,775
1,554,130
1,639,588
1,749,802
1,770,208
1,680,630
1,666,249
1,705,407
1,801,506
1,936,564
2,018,813
2,017.698
Total reserves of
Total borrowings
depository
Required reserves of
of depository
institutions
depository institutions
institutions
42,701
44,065
45,106
43,923
44,106
44,107
102,568
314,909
609,506
821,227
858,418
700,968
779,954
881,555
901,293
809,019
795,568
829,366
922,758
1,056,405
1,140,488
1,138,633
40,932
42,425
43,093
41,649
42,129
42,116
42,517
47,005
50,453
53,815
60,173
57,459
55,315
57,175
57,192
57,641
62,560
63,515
62,681
61,673
63,200
63,187
15,430
45,660
155,780
171,278
165,664
168,078
290,105
648,319
698,786
653,565
563,496
582,497
612,111
558,194
525,448
438,722
366,961
331,450
306,827
265,058
217,307
169,927
Huge increase in excess reserves after Lehman Failed
Non borrowed
reserves of dep.
institutions
27,271
-1,595
-110,674
-127,355
-121,558
-123,972
-187,537
-333,410
-89,280
167,661
294,922
118,470
167,843
323,361
375,845
370,297
428,607
497,916
615,931
791,347
923,181
968,706
27
Monetary Base
2007-12
2008-01
2008-05
2008-06
2008-07
2008-08
2008-09
2008-10
2008-11
2008-12
2009-1
2009-2
2009-3
2009-4
2009-5
2009-6
2009-7
2009-8
2009-9
2009-10
2009-11
2009-12
836,432
831,104
833,974
839,084
846,455
847,290
908,029
1,132,519
1,441,048
1,663,861
1,700,775
1,554,130
1,639,588
1,749,802
1,770,208
1,680,630
1,666,249
1,705,407
1,801,506
1,936,564
2,018,813
2,017.698
Total reserves of
Total borrowings
depository
Required reserves of
of depository
institutions
depository institutions
institutions
42,701
44,065
45,106
43,923
44,106
44,107
102,568
314,909
609,506
821,227
858,418
700,968
779,954
881,555
901,293
809,019
795,568
829,366
922,758
1,056,405
1,140,488
1,138,633
40,932
42,425
43,093
41,649
42,129
42,116
42,517
47,005
50,453
53,815
60,173
57,459
55,315
57,175
57,192
57,641
62,560
63,515
62,681
61,673
63,200
63,187
15,430
45,660
155,780
171,278
165,664
168,078
290,105
648,319
698,786
653,565
563,496
582,497
612,111
558,194
525,448
438,722
366,961
331,450
306,827
265,058
217,307
169,927
Non borrowed
reserves of dep.
institutions
27,271
-1,595
-110,674
-127,355
-121,558
-123,972
-187,537
-333,410
-89,280
167,661
294,922
118,470
167,843
323,361
375,845
370,297
428,607
497,916
615,931
791,347
923,181
968,706
Why? Increase Risk and the Fed is Paying Interest on the Debt
28
Monetary Base
2007-12
2008-01
2008-05
2008-06
2008-07
2008-08
2008-09
2008-10
2008-11
2008-12
2009-1
2009-2
2009-3
2009-4
2009-5
2009-6
2009-7
2009-8
2009-9
2009-10
2009-11
2009-12
836,432
831,104
833,974
839,084
846,455
847,290
908,029
1,132,519
1,441,048
1,663,861
1,700,775
1,554,130
1,639,588
1,749,802
1,770,208
1,680,630
1,666,249
1,705,407
1,801,506
1,936,564
2,018,813
2,017.698
Total reserves of
Total borrowings
depository
Required reserves of
of depository
institutions
depository institutions
institutions
42,701
44,065
45,106
43,923
44,106
44,107
102,568
314,909
609,506
821,227
858,418
700,968
779,954
881,555
901,293
809,019
795,568
829,366
922,758
1,056,405
1,140,488
1,138,633
40,932
42,425
43,093
41,649
42,129
42,116
42,517
47,005
50,453
53,815
60,173
57,459
55,315
57,175
57,192
57,641
62,560
63,515
62,681
61,673
63,200
63,187
15,430
45,660
155,780
171,278
165,664
168,078
290,105
648,319
698,786
653,565
563,496
582,497
612,111
558,194
525,448
438,722
366,961
331,450
306,827
265,058
217,307
169,927
Non borrowed
reserves of dep.
institutions
27,271
-1,595
-110,674
-127,355
-121,558
-123,972
-187,537
-333,410
-89,280
167,661
294,922
118,470
167,843
323,361
375,845
370,297
428,607
497,916
615,931
791,347
923,181
968,706
Is the Banking Sector Improving: Yes (lower borrowing of reserves)
29
The federal funds rate vs. the discount rate
30
The Fed’s Balance Sheet
• The Fed receives interest on its assets (U.S. government securities + loans to
banks).
• The Fed pays no interest on its liabilities (currency and fed funds).
• The Fed is highly profitable, which fosters its independence. The Fed returns
its profits to the Treasury.
• Hence the interest that the Treasury pays on securities held by the Fed is not a
cost for the Government: that portion of public debt is effectively monetized
(pays 0 interest)
31
The Quantity Theory: Money and Inflation
32
The Quantity Theory of Money: Quantity Equation
M*V = P*Y
M = money supply, P = the GDP deflator, Y = real GDP
V = velocity = PY/M. We define V in this way
If V is constant and Y is beyond the Central Bank’s LR control then ...
When the Central Bank doubles M, the result is a doubling of P
“Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon”
This Friedman quote is not literally correct because of Y and V movements. But a
LR correlation of .95 means it’s close enough.
33
The Evolution of Velocity (M1)
34
The Evolution of Velocity (M2)
35
Notes on the Quantity Equation
V is defined so that the Quantity Equation holds. Identity: P = MV / Y .
Inflation (rising P) is caused by too much money chasing too few goods, i.e. by M
rising relative to Y (controlling for how much M we need to transact PY, which is V).
Note inflation could rise despite fixed M because of falling Y or rising V. Across
countries, however, most differences in inflation (P growth) are associated with
differences in M growth: correlation between M growth and inflation is above .95.
V is not fixed in reality. V rises with financial innovation and with i (the nominal
interest rate). Recall that i = r +π. If, like Y, r is beyond the Central Bank’s LR
control, then higher inflation translates one-for-one into higher i. Implication: V rises
with the rate of inflation.
Thus taking into account that V is not fixed only makes the channel from M growth to P
growth stronger: when M growth is high it generates inflation , which raises V,
which in turn raises inflation further. This is a big deal in hyperinflations.
36
Money Growth and Inflation: 1990
37
Money Growth and Inflation: 1996-2004
100
Turkey
Inflation rate
Ecuador
(percent,
logarithmic scale)
Indonesia
Belarus
10
1
Argentina
U.S.
Singapore
Switzerland
0.1
1
10
100
Money Supply Growth
(percent, logarithmic scale)
Correlation between inflation and money growth ~ 0.90 over long periods of time.
Data from Greg Mankiw’s Text Book
U.S. inflation and money growth, 1960-2006
15%
12%
M2 growth rate
9%
6%
3%
inflation rate
0%
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
slide 39
Nominal Interest Rates and π
40
Monetizing Government Debt
The Central Bank buys public debt with reserves (increases monetary base!).
• When public debt is growing faster than GDP, there is political pressure on the
Central Bank to monetize some of the government debt b/c
– public debt pays interest, reserves do not;
– fixed nominal debt is easier to pay off the higher is P.
• Large budget deficits are the underlying cause of hyperinflations. The debt and
deficit limits in Europe’s EMU are meant to prevent member countries from
pushing for higher inflation.
• Central Bank independence from fiscal authorities can insulate it from
pressure to monetize the public debt.
41
CB Independence & Inflation
42
CB Independence & Inflation (Same Picture–Different Authors)
Data: Alesina and Summers 1993 (Data from 1955-1988)
43
Hyperinflations are ...
• sometimes defined as 30% or more inflation in a year
• usually characterized by accelerating inflation (wage indexation)
• caused by rapid M growth (the Central Bank creating new reserves at a rapid rate)
• exacerbated by rising velocity (efforts to economize on M)
• highly disruptive to Y
• 1985 Bolivia 10,000%, 1989 Argentina 3100%, 1990 Peru 7500%, 1993 Brazil
2100%, 1993 Ukraine 5000%.
44
Why Do Governments Grow the Money Supply?
Short Term Political Gains - reduce unemployment (or raise output). If the
economy is capacity constrained - prices must rise (however, this usually occurs
with a lag!)
Accommodating Supply Shocks - The U.S. in the 70s! (as opposed to breaking
the inflation cycle).
Financing Government Deficits by Printing Money!!!
We will deal with these reasons more as the course progresses.
45
Websites with more info
The Fed and District Banks (see the Board of Governors website for FOMC
minutes and speeches and testimony of FOMC members):
http://www.ny.frb.org/links.html
Foreign Central Banks: http://www.bog.frb.fed.us/centralbanks.htm
Fed Points (each explains something, e.g. how currency gets into circulation):
http://www.ny.frb.org/pihome/fedpoint/
Details on how open market operations work:
http://www.ny.frb.org/pihome/addpub/omo.html
Overview of the Fed: http://www.federalreserve.gov
46
The Money Market:
Money Demand, Money Supply, and the LM Curve
47
Money Supply (Summary)
Remember:
MS = [(cu + 1)/(cu + m*) ]* BASE
Define Nominal Money Supply (Ms):
Fed conducts monetary policy to increase Money Supply:
- Open Market Purchases (increase Base)
- Decrease the reserve ratio (decrease m)
- Decrease the Discount Rate (decrease m*)
Also influenced by the public:
- Bank runs (increase in cu)
- Bank precautionary motives (increase in m* above m)
48
Money Demand
•
Agents decide how much wealth to keep as money: Portfolio allocation decision
•
3 main characteristics of assets matter:
1.
Expected Return: The higher the expected return the higher consumption the
agent can enjoy!
2.
Risk:
Agents are risk-averse, hence to hold a risky asset, it must
have a higher expected return
3.
Liquidity:
The easier is to exchange the asset for goods, services or
other assets, the more attractive is the asset.
Money is highly liquid!
Money is the most liquid BUT has a low return!
49
Money Demand (continued)
• Nominal money demand is proportional to the price level. For example, if
prices go up by 10% then individuals need 10% more money for transactions.
• As Y increases, desired consumption increases and so individuals need more
money for the increased number of desired transactions. This is the liquidity
demand for money.
• As the nominal interest rate on non-money assets (bonds), i, increases the
opportunity cost of holding money increases and so the demand for nominal
money balances decreases.
• Since i = r + πe, we can decompose the effects on an increase in i into real
interest rate increases (holding expected inflation fixed) and expected inflation
increases (holding the real interest rate fixed).
50
Money Demand (continued)
Other factors affecting Money Demand:
– Wealth
– Risk
– Liquidity of Alternative Assets
– Payment Technologies
51
Money Demand Function
Our model for the demand for nominal money balances takes the following form
Md = P·Ld(Y, i)
where
Md = demand for nominal money balances (demand for M1)
Ld = demand for liquidity function
P = aggregate price level (CPI or GDP deflator)
Y = real income (real GDP)
i = nominal interest rate on non-money assets
52
Real Money Balances
The demand for real balances
Since the demand for nominal balances is proportional to the aggregate price level, we can
divide both sides of the nominal money demand equation by P.
This gives the liquidity demand function or the demand for real balances function:
Md/P = Ld(Y, r + πe)
The left-hand-side of the above equation is the demand for nominal balances divided by
the aggregate price level or the demand for real balances (the real purchasing power of
money).
The right-hand side is the liquidity demand function. The demand for real balances is
decomposed into a transactions demand for money (captured by Y) and a portfolio demand
for money (captured by r and πe).
53
Money Demand
54
Money Market
The Money Market is in Equilibrium when
Real Money Demand = Real Money Supply
where
Real Money Supply = Ms/P
Real Money Demand = Md/P = Ld(Y, r + πe)
Note: The money supply curve does not change with interest rates (it is verticle)
What shifts real money supply: M, P
What shifts real money demand: Y, πe
55
Money Market Equilibrium
Money Market
Ms
re
Md = Ld(Y,πe)
M/P
56
Money Market Equilibrium – Increasing Y
Money Market
Ms
r0
Md = Ld(Y0,..)
M/P
Suppose Y increases from Y0 to Y1 (Holding Money Supply fixed!)
57
Money Market Equilibrium – Increasing Y
Money Market
Ms
r1
r0
Y increases
Md = Ld(Y1,…)
Md = Ld(Y0,..)
M/P
Suppose Y increases from Y0 to Y1 (Holding Money Supply fixed!)
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Positive Relationship Between Y and r (in Money Market)
r1
r0
Y
Y1
Y
59
Positive Relationship Between Y and r (in Money Market)
We will refer to this as the LM curve
r1
r0
Y
Y1
Y
60
The LM (Liquidity-Money) Curve
LM Curve: (drawn in (Y-r) space) - represents the relationship of Y and r through the money
market (specifically - Y’s affect on money demand).
The LM Curve relates real interest rates to real changes in output in the money market.
As Y increases - Md shifts upwards - causing real interest rates to rise (increase in transactions
demand increases the demand for money).
What shifts the LM curve?
Money:
Increasing Money Supply increases M/P causing the LM curve to the right.
Prices:
Increasing Prices causes real Money Balances to fall shifting LM curve to the
left.
π e:
Increasing expected inflation causes returns on bonds (assets other than money)
to increase making it less attractive to hold cash. Causes LM curve to shift right!
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Shifting the LM curve: An Increase in M
Thought experiment: Suppose M increases. What level of Y is needed to hold r
constant.
Or, put another way, what would happen to r if Y was held constant?
Ms Ms1
LM(M0)
r0
r1
x
z
r0
x
r1
z
LM(M1)
Md(Y0)
Y0
Money Market
LM curve
An increase in the nominal money supply will cause the LM curve to shift to the right
(or shift down, if you prefer that metric).
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Interest Rates and Output
There are two effects driving the relationship between interest rates and output.
1)
The IS curve. As interest rates fall, Investment increases and Y increases.
r falling causes Y to increase (negative relationship - the IS curve)
2)
The transaction motive for holding money. As Y increases, demand for money
increases and r increases.
Y increasing causes r to increase (positive relationship - the LM curve)
In equilibrium, both relationships need to be satisfied. We will work through this intuition
in the next Topic.
However, before we do, we will see why we need to summarize the money market as the
LM curve (as opposed to just Money Supply and Money Demand).
Remember: Everywhere along the LM curve represents equilibrium in the money market.
63
An Illustration of “Monetary Feedback” in Money Market
Suppose M increases
Money Market
Ms Ms1
re
re1
0
1
Md = Ld(Y,πe)
M/P M1/P
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An Illustration of “Monetary Feedback” in Money Market
A fall in r, will increase I, causing Y to increase - which causes Md (and r) to increase….
Money Market
Ms Ms1
Y increases
e
re2r
re1
0
2
1
M increases
Md1 = Ld(Y1,πe)
Md = Ld(Y,πe)
M/P M1/P
•
This process is known as monetary feedback - increasing M will cause r to fall, I to increases, Y to
increase, money demand to increase and r to increase. The net effect on r will be to fall.
•
The IS-LM representation will express this process in a more concise form?
65
Bonus Material:
The Money Market During The Great Depression
and Current Recession
66
Banking During the Great Depression
67
1929-1933: Bank Runs
From “A Monetary History of the United States 1857-1960” by Milton Friedman
and Anna J. Schwartz
68
“Flight to Currency”
•
Cumulative decrease of bank deposits over 1929-1933 was 48.2%
•
Why??? It was not because reserves fell, given that they rose by 8.4%
•
A fractional reserve banking system is fragile (cu and m* can change).
• Two possible equilibria:
1.
2.
People believe banks have enough reserves to cover withdrawals and
hence they do
People believe banks do not have enough reserves and hence they don’t
•
In 1929-33: three episodes of bank runs in 1930 and 1933
•
Aggregate decrease in deposits due to bank failures and preemptive
withdrawals from sound banks (flight to currency).
69
Optimal Policy During Bank Crises
•
How can increased demand for currency precipitate a depression?
•
To build up cash reserves, people sell off other assets (Md shifts out!)
•
But the economy as a whole cannot get more liquidity if M is fixed (M
actually falls from the fractional reserve system – i.e., because of the decline
in the money multiplier).
•
The only effect of this is that i (and likely r) increases (and chokes off firm
investment (as i, and likely r, increase)).
•
Spending decline results in both deflation and decline in production.
•
Policy mistake as described by Friedman: the Fed could have offset deposit
decrease by increasing reserves (M), permitting/encouraging sound banks to
expand deposits (increase Base).
70
Post Depression Bank Regulation
•
After 1933, Roosevelt administration introduced measures to prevent bank
runs (e.g. 1933: Glass-Steagall Act set up deposit insurance (FDIC))
-
Only commercial banks permitted to issue insured demand deposits and
regulated more tightly than investment banks
Unintended consequences
•
Regulation, successful in avoiding bank runs BUT commercial banks get no
return on reserves while investment banks can hold interest-bearing liquid
assets
-
Incentive for large depositors to move funds out of regulated banks and into
unregulated (and uninsured) interest earning accounts.
-
Became routine to move funds out of commercial bank into other higher return
assets and then move them back just in time to make payments (“swaps”)
-
A legal evasion of the requirements that banks not pay interest on commercial
accounts!
71
Bank Bailouts in Current Recession
72
Financial Crisis 2007-08
•
By 1990s businesses had moved most deposits out of commercial banks into short run
securities that are thought to be safe from default risk and yield a better return!
•
Examples: REPO borrowing , short term government debt and high-grade commercial
papers, financial firms created low-risk derivatives out of packages of high risk
assets,…
•
People extending short term credit to Lehmann to get infinitesimally higher return than
T-bill rate did not think (or did not admit) that they were taking on risk.
•
The mechanics of short term borrowing is very similar to issue of demand deposits:
give cash today and take it back whenever you like (decline to roll it over!)
•
The economics of the “credit freeze” is very similar to bank runs!
•
The freeze affected financial institutions living on repeated issues of short term debt
•
As liquidity supply declines, everyone wants to get in government-insured assets
(reserves, currency and insured deposits): flight to government promises to currency!
73
Policy Response in this Recession
•
As in the early stages of the Great Depression, this reduces spending,
affecting output and prices…
What to do?
•
According to Friedman and Swhwartz: the Fed needs to act as “lender of last
resort”, injecting more reserves into the system fast.
•
This is exactly what the Fed is doing! (Bernanke is a student of Friedman’s
mindset).
•
Bernanke’s speech for Friedman 90th birthday: “…I would like to say to
Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression. You're right, we did it.
We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again.”
•
Increasing reserves will stimulate spending, but the timing is uncertain.
•
When Federal Funds market doesn’t work, Fed needs to develop other
measures. Hence…..TARP, Fiscal Stimulus, etc.
74
The Banking System: An Example (Kaplan 2008)
Typical Bank’s Pre-crisis balance sheet:
Assets
Loans and Securities
100
Liabilities
Deposits
Short-term debt
Long-term debt
Equity
70
10
10
10
Banks made bad loans and bought bad securities (Suppose loans only worth “90”):
Assets
Liabilities
Loans and Securities
90
Deposits
70
Short-term debt 10
Long-term debt 10
Equity
0
The bank is still solvent, but has 0 equity. However, if providers of short-term debt and
depositors begin to question the solvency of the bank, they stop lending and withdraw deposits.
“Bank run" even if the institution is (or would be) solvent under normal conditions!
Everyone is suspicious of everyone else, because no one knows the real value of the equity. No
one will provide short-term debt because they worry they will not get paid.
75
The Banking System: An Example (Kaplan 2008)
If the value of loans declined badly enough:
Assets
Loans and Securities
80
Liabilities
Deposits
Short-term debt
Long-term debt
Equity
70
7
3
0
The bank is insolvent because cannot pay debt holders.
TARP 2: inject equity in the banks (worth “5”) + guarantee short term debtors (keep
short term debt at “10” – banks continue to loan to each other). What if loans are worth
only 90 at beginning of period?
Assets
Loans and Securities
Cash
90
5
Liabilities
Deposits
Short-term debt
Long-term debt
Equity
70
10
10
5
Bank is still solvent and equity prices are not wiped out.
76
The Banking System: An Example (Kaplan 2008)
Suppose that loans declined by “80” instead of “90”. Is a capital injection of “5” enough
to prevent bank failure?
Assets
Loans and Securities
Cash
80
5
Liabilities
Deposits
Short-term debt
Long-term debt
Equity
70
10
5
0
No – equity prices are wiped out AND it cannot pay off its long term debt.
The key issue around TARP is how much are the bank loans actually worth. If the lower the
true underlying value of the bank loans, the more money that needs to be injected to prevent
the banks from becoming insolvent.
Over the course of the policy response, this is why banks have not “lent” the TARP money.
There is still risk over how much the loan portfolios are worth. If the loan portfolios continue
to fall, the banks would risk insolvency. As a result, they are hoarding cash until the
uncertainty of their loan portfolios are resolved.
When will the uncertainty of their loan portfolios be reduced? When housing prices stabilize.
77