The Political Dimensions of
Teaching Module for the
TCC Globalization Seminar
April 2009
Presented by Daniel A. Strasser
Adjunct Instructor of Political Science
Tidewater Community College, Virginia
Portsmouth Campus
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How to Use this Slide Show
• The following PowerPoint presentation on
Globalization’s political dimensions may be put
online for individual student study.
• It may also be used by an instructor to give a
series of lectures covering all of the material for
delivery orally and for discussion. In that case,
the instructor may wish to reduce the amount of
information on each slide and transfer it to the
notes section of the slides.
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Defining Globalization
• No universal definition of globalization.
• Economic definition: trade, finance and
communications
• Broader definition: Tom Friedman – an
International System that replaced
the Cold War
• A good definition I have found (Levin Institute, SUNY):
• “Globalization is a process of interaction and integration
among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade
and investment and aided by information technology.
This process has effects on the environment, on culture,
on political systems, on economic development and
prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world.” (www.globalization101.org)
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Why Globalization?
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Globalization – A “smaller world”
People are closer together
A world closer in time and space
A world without borders
Goods, services and ideas move faster or instantly.
Driven by technology
– Transportation – Shipping, Containerization Air travel
– Communication – Television, the Internet
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Globalizations
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII
•Often speak of Globalization I (Pre-WWI) and II
(Post Cold War), with a hiatus in the middle, but
one can identify 7 phases of Globalization:
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I Early Man: Globalization is inherent in the human condition; man originated in Ethiopia
200,000 + years ago and occupied the entire world 20,000 years ago.
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II Ancient Empires: China, Rome, Italian explorers, Arab traders
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III Colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, England, France, Holland – Mercantilism
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IV British Empire - Naval Supremacy 18th /mid-19th Century to WWI
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V Cold War – Post WWII - US vs. USSR, the UN, Decolonization, Independence movements,
accelerated technological development, space exploration, micro processing, the internet
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VI American Hegemony – Post Cold War, Rise of Islamic Radicalism, Transnationalism, NGOs,
Uni-polarity
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VII Post-Modern: 9/11, 2008/9 Recession, Multi-polarity
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Types of Globalization
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Technological: IT, Biomedical, Green, Robotics
Population: Growth, Aging, Youth Bulge, Women, Labor, Nigration
Economic: Commercial, Industrial, Communications, Services
Financial: Investments, Banking, Exchange Rates, Black Markets,
Money Laundering
Cultural: Ideational, Ideological, Educational, Civilization, Pop
Culture
Political, Democratic, Multinational Organizations, International Law
and Regimes, Rule of Law, Civil Society
Military/Security: Nuclear Proliferation, Alliances, Rising Powers
Environmental: Global Warming, Bio-Diversity, Deforestation
Health: Pandemics, Potable Water, AIDS/HIV, Malaria
Resources: Water, Food and Agriculture, Energy and Fuels,
Minerals
Terrorism: Islamist-Extremist, other Religious, Ethnic, National,
Crime: Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, Piracy, Trafficking in
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Persons, Conflict Diamonds
The Political Dimension
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The Threats:
– Sub-national Conflicts and Failed States
– Radical Islamic Terrorism – “Clash of
Civilizations”
– Authoritarianism – From Zimbabwe to China
– International Organized Crime – Drug
Trafficking
– Widespread Corruption
– Global Economic/Social Inequality
– Population Pressures
– Ecological Threats – Rising sea levels,
Hurricanes
– Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)
– Resource Wars – Fuel, Water, Food, Raw
Materials
– Human Rights Violations, War Crimes and
Genocides
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The Political Dimension
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The Benefits
– David Ricardo and comparative advantage
– Expansion of trade, industrialization, finance and GDP
– Expansion of Diplomacy and “Soft Power” as the core of state
power
– Expansion of International Law and Organizations
– Expansion of Freedom, Democracy, Civil Society
– Expansion of Development and Foreign Assistance
– Expansion of Western Culture and Values
– US a principal beneficiary of Globalization
– Empowerment of individuals, women, groups, minorities
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Global Threats
• Fragile, Failing, Failed States and Ungoverned
Territories
– Weak state is either a result of or allows for internal
ethnic or religious conflicts
– Anarchy results in human suffering, violence, criminal
activities and trafficking
– Lack of governance results in non-existent or poor
public services, corruption
– Allow safehavens for terrorist, extremist and criminal
organizations
– Globalization makes negative impact on th Rest of the
World (ROW), e.g. terrorism and piracy
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Global Terrorism
•Harvard Political Scientist Samuel Huntington predicted a “Clash of Civilizations” between the
West and the East
•Main threat is from Radical Islamist Extremism, e.g. Al Qaida and Associated Movements.
•Driven by a jihadist (religious war) ideology to create a modern Caliphate under sharia (Koranic)
law.
•Al Qaida is “blowback” from war by US-backed Mujahaddin against Soviet aggression in
Afghanistan in 1979.
•Resentment from “Arab Afghans” against resistance by own governments (Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
etc.) to give them a political/security role; resentment against US dominance of Middle East;
presence of US troops on Holy ground and control of Middle East petroleum and support for Israel.
•Promoted series of bombings—First World Trade Center bombing, USS Cole, US Embassies in
Nairobi and ….and finally 9/11/2001 attack on the World Trade Center.
•US invasion of Afghanistan – Al Qaida leadership flee to Pakistan tribal areas
•Joined resistance to US invasion/occupation of Iraq.
•Continue to support Afghan Taliban and fight in Afghanistan
•Continue to plan and plot further terrorist attacks against Western targets
•Problem of terrorist presence on the WWW and of “home grown” terrorists in Europe and the US.
•First major national security reorganization in US forming the Department of Homeland Security.
•Other terrorist groups, Hizbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine Gaza Strip, represent statesponsored groups supported by Iran and Syria, against Israeli and Jewish targets only.
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Global Authoritarianism
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• Unlike Totalitarianism of former Nazi
Germany or USSR, current Islamist
Extremism or Anti-Communism (as in
Pinochet’s Chile), authoritarianism today
is non-ideological
• Pragmatic desire to hold power for
political and economic benefit of an elite
• Historically, the most widespread,
diverse and persistent type of political
system.
Such states are the greatest threat that there will be future inter-state
warfare.
Authoritarian states are subject over time to changing international norms
and values, but may resist them for a long period of time.
Democracy has eroded the number of authoritarian regimes a range of
states from one-man/one-party corrupt (Zimbabwe) or military-run
(Myanmar) state, to a one-party, bureaucratic authoritarian state such as
China (China’s attachment to Communist ideology is questionable).
“Rogue States,” such as North Korea, Iran, Cuba (and to some extent Syria)
present particular destabilizing elements with potential for use of WMD.
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International Organized Crime
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•Biggest crime threat is from organized
drug cartels, Colombia, Mexico, Russian
Mafia, Italian Mafia and Camorra
•Drugs create public health and safety
issues in source, transit and importing
countries.
•Drug trafficking weakens state
institutions through corruption, fear and
violence.
•Takes advantages of weak, corrupt
governmental and law enforcement
Stratfor Map
institutions.
Takes advantage of borderless world, fast air, sea and land transportation, use
of public transportation and “mules”
Takes advantage of poverty and inequality
Takes advantage of drug tolerance in all societies
Takes advantage of legal prohibitions in demand countries.
Still weak international institutions to coordinate counter-narcotics activities
on a global scale to match those of the traffickers
Human Trafficking takes advantage of poor people seeking improved lives to
subvert immigration and promote sweat shops and prostitution.
Piracy is an ancient but growing problem that severely affects global shipping,
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trade and energy supply and is usually associated with failed states and
ungoverned territories.
Corruption
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Corruption is a global problem that undermines states and good governance
and threatens the rule of law
Corruption undermines free markets causing economic impacts and impact on
social and public services
Corruption undermines democratic governance substituting money and
influence for the free will of the people
It undermines public confidence in the government and bureaucracy which is
supposed to operate for the public good not the private good of politicians and
public servants.
Corruption undermines the benefits of international economic development
assistance which siphons off funds from otherwise good projects.
Corruption undermines trust between governments
Corruption creates inequalities between corrupt and non-corrupt states that
lead to spillover effects in neighboring countries.
Corruption leads to moral and ethical breakdown in societies as it breaks the
social contract between a government and its citizens.
The opposite of corruption is transparency which can be promoted by
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government policies and efforts by civil society and the international
community
Socio-Economic Inequality
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Inequality is based on geographic, historical, social and cultural grounds.
There is inequality within and between states and world regions.
Globalization increases wealth overall, but tends to create winners and losers,
thus expanding socio-economic equality.
Unequal economic development between the North and the South created the
North-South divide.
Histories of conquest and colonization resulted in a difference between
exploiters and exploited.
Within countries, class differences emerged in both the agricultural (masters,
slaves and serfs) and industrial (capitalists and workers) ages. Differences in
the relative value of industrial and agricultural goods determined the wealth of
nations.
Marxists believe that the difference between the wealth of nations is part of the
system of “capitalist exploitation” and “imperialism.”
Socio-economic inequality leads to resentments and other phenomena from
crime to “social exclusion” (a term used in Europe) social revolt and rioting,
racial, religious and regional tensions and even internal and cross border wars.
Such conflicts often get related to global tensions between states, with some
states supporting allies within a local conflict while their enemies supporting
the other side. Such alliances can result in regional or even world wars if not
controlled by international norms and mediation.
Efforts to reduce inequality through economic assistance have proven to be 14
inadequate. Economic development through reform has been more successful.
Population
•Over 1 billion people out of 6.2 billion live in
abject poverty. Projections for 2050 is 9 billion.
•Children are the first to suffer from poverty and
lack of health care, clean water, adequate food
and education
•Population growth puts increasing pressure on
natural resources, including water, food, fuel, raw
materials and on the earth’s atmosphere.
•Population growth has been accelerating,
creating additional burdens upon the Earth’s
capacity to provide a decent living for all.
•Population growth means that there is constant
pressure on per capita GDP growth
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Migration is a constant factor for change in populations, shifting labor and
social tensions caused by economic and cultural competition.
Migration is caused by wars, economic distress, droughts, racial tensions,
ethnic cleansing and by a desire for economic improvement or political or
religious freedom.
Some populations are aging while others have created a “youth bulge.” The
former means a burden will be placed on younger generations to support a
greater proportion of retirees. In the latter, too many youth mean not enough
meaningful employment and resulting social and political unrest.
Efforts by some countries to reduce population growth (China) have increased
population aging and reduced prospects for future growth.
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Environmental Threats
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Global warming is one of the largest threats to human welfare today,
promising melting ice caps and glaciers, rising sea levels, changes in
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weather patterns and loss of certain species due to habitat loss.
Negative impact of climate change on biology, health, food and water
resources.
Deforestation means reduced oxygen and more CO2 resulting in more
greenhouse gases that bring climate change.
Excessive use of carbon-based fuels creates CO2 emissions that threaten
global warming. Growth from globalization, itself worsens climate change.
Growing population with middle class aspirations, especially cars, lead to
greater emission of CO2
Destruction of rain forests also threatens bio-diversity, with its potential to find
new cures for human illnesses.
Pollution of the atmosphere and water supply directly effect human health and
safety.
The environment is a global issue that needs global solutions or results in
“beggar thy neighbor” behavior and potential social and political tensions.
Countries arriving late to industrialization and economic development resent
that more developed countries now want them to share sacrifice to reverse
global problems caused by the latter.
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The United States failed to provide leadership in the environment over the past
decade. Without it, progress on global environment is unlikely.
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Weapons of Mass Destruction
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Since WWII, WMD have presented a global existential threat to the survival of
life on the planet or at a minimum massive loss of life in one or more cities.
The Cold War limited the growth of nuclear powers (US, USSR, UK, China, and
France, the victorious powers of WWII and the permanent members of the UN
Security Council) and limited the threat of nuclear war through Mutual Assured
Destruction of the US and USSR.
Regional conflicts and insecurity caused a rush to acquire nuclear weapons on
the part of some countries (India, Pakistan, China, Israel, North Korea) and
efforts by others (Iran and others in the past).
Even middle powers developed cheap chemical, biological weapons
Break-up of the Soviet Union led to fears that not all nuclear weapons were
secure.
Fear is that terrorist groups could produce or acquire one or more nuclear
devices to destroy major population/governmental/military centers to weaken
the US and Western powers or threaten them into concessions.
Fear that local tensions (Israel/Iran or India/Pakistan) could trigger wider wars.
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Resource Wars
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A new “Malthusianism” has emerged from growth of population and
environmental impact.
Concern that the world will run out of basic resources: clean air and
water, food, fuel, minerals, wood, other agricultural/animal products
Availability of resources depend on imperfect markets as well as
production
Global climate change could reduce the amounts of water, food, wood
and other agricultural products.
Countries in need of irrigation for agriculture to support growing
populations might engage in conflict over water, e.g. the Nile River
Some countries, e.g. China in Africa, appear to be seeking to “lock up”
resources for future consumption.
Competition for resources could cause a rise in naval competition to
control “choke points” of commerce (Sea Lines of CommunicationSLOCs).
Countries could react to perceived threats to their sovereignty over
resources (e.g. Brazil concerned about the international community’s
eye on the Amazon).
Could bring a return to “geopolitical thinking” in foreign affairs.
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Human Rights
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Many countries and groups continue to violate human rights despite
international standards and mechanisms.
Basic liberties are lacking in authoritarian states, where repression limits
political expression, competition and the right of self-determination of peoples.
Ethnic and Religious intolerance and tensions provoke ethnic cleansing, intrastate conflict and wars.
Genocide remains a threat over large populations in Africa, the Middle East and
even Europe.
Violations against women (rape, trafficking), children (child soldiers,
abductions) and minorities some used as forms of warfare.
Weak international institutions to bring war criminals to justice.
Women not considered equal in parts of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, Eastern
Europe and Latin America, deprived of suffrage, basic political freedoms,
education, access to health, freedom of the person and subjected to sex
slavery, arranged marriages, honor killings, veiling and female genital
mutilation.
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Children not given basic human needs for their early survival and success.
Global Benefits
Economic Rewards
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Economic benefits have political consequences
David Ricardo, 18th Century economist, discovered
law of comparative advantage. That each nation
should produced those things it produced best, cheapest, and all
would benefit from lower prices. Philosophy of free trade.
Globalization, promoted by free trade, has meant greater wealth
creation on global scale and emerging economies in the South
Containerization revolutionized, reduced cost of global trading.
Industrialization of the South and movement of industrial jobs to
Asia, Mexico.
US has become center of global financial and other high tech
services. Globalization of finance (Now under question.)
Global GDP growth.
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International Law and Organization
and Human Rights
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The failure of the weak League of Nations to prevent WWII, led the victors of
WWII, FDR, Churchill and Stalin, to form the United Nations.
First purpose of UN is the Maintenance of International Peace and Security
Another important purpose is the promotion of universal human rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is now the global standard of
human rights performance and the together with the Covenants on Civil and
Political Rights and on Economic and Social Rights make up the “International
Bill of Rights.”
UN, began with 51 states, promoted the process of self-determination,
decolonization, so that today there are 192 member states.
The growth of treaty law has created international regimes for many global
issues, from the Law of the Sea to Human Rights and World Trade.
UN System includes not only universal representation of states (General
Assembly), but also a capacity through the Security Council to act to preserve
peace and security. Other organs consider Economic and Social issues, a
Secretariat provides leadership and administrative support and the World Court
and International Criminal Court promote international rule of law.
World Conferences on issues like the Environment, Women’s Rights and the
Millennium Development goals have promoted major global issues.
The UN is only as strong as its nation-state members allow it to be.
UN reform is fundamental to its future utility in providing a core function of 22
global governance.
Democratization
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•Democracy was a minority form of
government globally until the mid-1970s
when a “Third Wave” of democracy began,
described in a book written in 1991 by
Samuel P. Huntington.
•More than 60 countries transitioned
towards democracy beginning with the 1974
“Revolution of the Carnations” in Portugal.
(The other "waves" occurred from 18281926 and 1943-1962, each followed by
reversals.)
•Third Wave due to US withdrawal from
Vietnam, a a shift towards human rights
under the Carter Administration, moderation in the Cold War, exhaustion of
various authoritarian models and of their economic policies following the debt
crisis of the late 70s and changing international norms.
It was consolidated by the decline and fall of the Soviet Union in the late 80s as
former Soviet dominated states became independent and move to democracy.
Today, democracy has been consolidated in Europe, in parts of Asia and almost
all of Latin America (with some questions remaining about the degree of
consolidation). Democracy has made least progress in the Middle East and
Africa, with only a handful of democratic states.
Such big states as Russia and China are not democratic while, the US, The
European Union, Japan, India, Brazil, South Africa and Indonesia represent
populous democracies.
Democracy is now accepted as the form of government most favored by the 23
United Nations and other regional organizations such as NATO and the
Organization of American States .
Global Civil Society
•Idea of civil society, “We the people,” dates back to Preamble of the Constitution,
US First Amendment’s freedom of association and findings of Alexis de Toqueville in
“Democracy in America.”
•Civil society can be a bowling league, a PTA a Rotary or Optimists Club or it can be
as large as the Red Cross, with international and national components.
•Civil society is often described as the “Third” or “Independent Sector” after the
Government and the Market Economy.
•Civil society organizations (CSOs) are usually associated with nonprofit (with a
capacity to receive non-taxable donations) or Non-governmental Organizations
(NGOs, usually operating internationally).
•Global Civil Society operates independently of both government and intergovernmental organizations, but is closely involved with both of them.
•CSOs are often identified as “interest groups” or even “pressure groups” for the
role they play in lobbying governments and IGOs on issues of concern.
•NGOs played a key role in the promotion of the human rights mission of the UN.
•In recent times, they have played a very important role in promoting governmental
and IGO focus on issues of the environment, women, children and other human
rights and humanitarian issues.
•They also partners with official organizations to promote the policies they support
and implementation of those policies.
•CSOs often receive not only private donations, but also government and IGO
funding and resources to carry out functions like humanitarian assistance, health,
development and democracy promotion activities. In this role, they are often
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referred to as Private Voluntary Organizations (PVOs)
Globalization of
Foreign Assistance
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Foreign Assistance is traced back to the Marshall Plan for
post-war Europe
Foreign Aid has long served both humanitarian and strategic
purposes
As former colonies became independent, from the late 1950s to the mid-1990s, their
economic welfare and development ceased to be the responsibility of their colonial
administrators but of the international community.
Newly independent states as members of the UN could call on the UN, its family of
organizations and agencies, and UN members to assist them in a wide range of areas,
economic, financial humanitarian, health, education.
The Cold War, 1948-90, created a competition between the US and the USSR and their allies
to “win the hearts and minds” of the developing, or Third World or their governments and
to support allies. This included both economic and military assistance.
Some countries “graduated” from being aid recipients (not totally) to become “emerging
markets/emerging powers.
Foreign economic assistance is now directed mostly at the “poorest of the poor,”
principally in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia and Latin America, but governance,
humanitarian, counter-narcotics programs and major infrastructure projects, continue to
be funded world-wide.
Many question the value of economic assistance without improvements in governance and
transparency in developing countries and overdependence on foreign aid.
The UN’s Milllennium Development Goals, adopted in the year 2000, pledged to reduce
poverty world-wide by 2015, and resulted in an increase in foreign assistance by major
donors.
China, India and the Asian Tigers (South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia) have
provided an alternative path to development by promoting free markets, capital investment,
educational development, information-age services
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Expansion of Western
Culture and Values
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Globalization has spread Western culture throughout
the world.
The ascendancy and dominance of the United States,
Europe and other “Western” countries such as
Canada and Australia economically, technologically,
informationally and militarily following WWII have
promoted Western Culture.
Globalization is often considered “Americanization” of other countries. This includes
the popularity of US/British culture, including pop culture: movies, TV, videos, music,
news, literature, plastic and performing arts, fast food and consumerism.
The growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web and the multiple applications
have facilitated communication of all information, including cultural information.
Western values come with Western culture and sometimes leads to a “culture clash.”
More traditional societies—in the Middle East, Asia and Africa—resist culture and
values that conflict with their deeply held mores on the role of women, marriage,
sexual freedom and preferences, the role of the family.
Religious differences and differences in religious tolerance have also tended to be
accentuated by globalization. These clashes reach the stage of ideological conflict,
inciting social and political tensions, violence and even terrorism.
On the other hand, the spread of Western ideas about human rights, democracy,
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philanthropy and the value of human life have improved the lives of millions of people.
The US and Globalization
•Globalization has influenced the relative power of nations in the international
system, giving rise to issues of “rise and fall” of nations and the future status
of the United States, currently the only superpower in the world.
•National Power is a complex combination of territorial size, population,
economic strength and growth (in terms of GDP), natural resources,
industrialization, educational level, technological development, political
stability and the strength of the military.
•Globalization’s strong forces of change result in creating “winners and
losers’ in the area of global competition, especially in technological and
economic terms.
•The US has been a beneficiary of the free markets, free trade and
free flow of financial resources that are at the heart of Globalization.
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The US is the center of both world finance and technological innovation and has the world’s most
vibrant democracy, best higher education system and strongest military.
However, Globalization has brought the rise of “emerging powers” that have the capacity to catch up
with and even surpass the US in several areas, principally economic. China is the most likely
candidate to achieve such advancement, followed by the other BRICs (Brazil, Russia and India).
The US economic recession of 2008-09, will cause many to question American economic and
financial leadership
The US is vulnerable to the kind of “imperial overstretch,” where military involvement abroad
overtakes the capacity of the nation’s economy to sustain it.
However, until now, no other power appears to be close to amassing the kind of power that the US
has.
More likely will be a international system in which problems are addressed multilaterally rather than
unilaterally.
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Globalization and Private
Empowerment
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One of the strong aspects of Globalization has been the empowerment
of the individual and private groups
This empowerment is both technological and political, fed largely by
the growth of the internet and other forms of personal communication
(cell phones, PDAs) and information sharing that allows for the rapid
growth of networks. This is an Information Age phenomenon.
It is now possible for individuals or small groups to develop large
organizations and businesses based on a good idea or concept, vastly
expanding personal opportunity and entrepreneurship.
Globalization has empowered Civil Society to expand and collaborate
more broadly, leading to greater solidarity networks.
It has also given rise to the advent of the “non-state actors” in
international affairs, ranging from Multinational Corporations, to NGOs
and terrorist groups and criminal networks.
Private empowerment represents both the hope and the risks of
globalization.
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Global Governance?
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The idea of “Global Governance” has been around for over 20 years.
It recognizes that in a world of accelerated globalization, some global
solutions are necessary.
The essence of global governance is a coordination of efforts by
governments, international organizations, civil society and other groups of
efforts to reduce or manage the threats of globalization and to promote the
benefits of globalization.
An important UN report, Our Global Neighborhood, by The Commission on
Global Governance, a distinguished panel of international public servants,
was issued in 1995, but was not universally well received.
Global governance is opposed by those who defend the sovereignty of
states and mistrust, fear large multinational bureaucracies.
Global Governance is not World Government. In fact, global governance
would not be necessary, were there a world government.
Global governance refers to the political interaction that is required to solve
problems that affect more than one state or region when there is no power
of enforcing compliance. Problems arise; networks of actors are constructed
to deal with them in the absence of an international analogue to a national
government. This system has been termed “disaggregated sovereignty.”
Some, however, question the inefficacy of such informal regimes.
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Globalization and the Future
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Globalization is dynamic by its very nature, thereby
driving us towards thinking of the future.
Futurologists must take Globalization into
consideration in making forecasts, scenarios.
Globalization is a disruptive process, impacting and changing all aspects of
human and natural life.
It is no longer possible to think of the future without putting Globalization at
the center of our analysis.
A number of futures studies, by the US Government, academics and private
think tanks use a Globalization-based assessment.
Forecasting must include both trend analysis and judgments about the nonlinear processes which lead to “Future Shock.”
Uncertainty is the leitmotif of Post-Modern Globalization.
We have difficulty foreseeing unintended or collateral consequences of our
actions or of the inter-relationship of underlying global processes. (See
Lovelock’s Gaia Model (and elaboration by TCC professor Thomas I. Ellis) for an
attempt at systems integration:
http://www.ecolo.org/lovelock/what_is_Gaia.html)
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The Future of Globalization
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Some writers speak of the “End of Globalization,” meaning
that some event (9/11, the 2008-9 Recession) or process
(high petroleum prices) will make nations turn away from a
more connected world and turn inward, shutting themselves
off from vulnerabilities of Globalization.
Some Marxists protest Globalization as merely the manifestation of “late
capitalism” fraught with injustices, inequalities and exploitation that must be
opposed by civil society groups and “progressive” movements.
Other single issue groups, such as environmental groups oppose the
uncontrolled march of economic growth and its affects on nature and the
human habitat. This is sometimes called “wild globalization”
It is possible to view globalization as an unstoppable process, given its roots
in technological advancement which continues.
However, it is important to bear in mind that the First Wave of Globalization,
ended with WWI, gave way to a period in which nations withdrew behind
high tariff barriers leading to the Depression and WWII.
That lesson, is driving governments to avoid restricting trade in the face of
new economic stress.
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Most likely, Globalization, with its benefits and risks, is here to stay.
Study References
• An excellent textbook on Globalization issues for college students:
Richard Payne, Global Issues: Politics, Economics and Culture
Second Ed. (New York, Pearson Longman), 2009
• Globalization Websites:
Levin Institute, SUNY - www.globalization101.org
Yale Center for the Study of Globalization:
http://www.ycsg.yale.edu/
Great Globalization site, excellent bibliography:
http://sociologyindex.com/globalisation.htm
• 3 Books by NYT Columnist Thomas Friedman:
The Lexus and the Olive Tree; The World is Flat; Hot, Flat and
Crowded
• Riorden Wilkinson, ed.,The Global Governance Reader, Routledge,
2005
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