Research Methods
Studying Behavior
Scientifically
O Behavior must be measurable
O Methods and data must be objective
O Procedures must be repeatable
O Scientists must be able to communicate the
results of experiment to others
O Experimenters must use an organized and
systematic approach in gathering data
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
O Research involving human subjects must
meet the following standards:
O 1. INFORMED CONSENT = participants must
know that they are involved in research and
give their consent.
O 2. DECEPTION = Deception may be allowed
as long as it doesn’t invalidate the informed
consent. Researchers must be careful about
the trauma deception may cause.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
O 3. COERCION = Participants cannot be
coerced in any way to give consent to be in
the study.
O 4. ANONYMITY = the identities and actions
of participants must not be revealed in any
way by the researcher.
ETHICAL GUIDELINES
O 5. RISK = participants cannot be placed at
significant mental or physical risk.
O 6. DEBRIEFING = participants must be told
the purpose of the study and provided with
ways to contact the researcher about study
results.
Purpose of Research
O To find ways to measure and describe
behavior.
O To understand why, when, and how events
occur.
O To apply this knowledge to solving real-world
problems.
To seek Cause & Effect researchers use
experimental method.
Experimental method: a standardized way of
making observations, gathering data,
forming theories, testing predictions, and
interpreting results.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION:
Hypothesis = A testable prediction that
expresses a relationship between two
variables.
O
O
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Falsifiable = written in a way that someone
could possibly prove it to be untrue.
Confirmation bias = A tendency to search
for information that comfirms our
preconceptions.
O EX. “Children who watch scary movies are more likely to
have nightmares than are children who don’t watch scary
movies.”
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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
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TERMINOLOGY
1. Variables = the events, characteristics,
behaviors, or conditions that researchers
measure and study.
2. Hypothesis = A testable prediction that
expresses a relationship between two
variables.
O 3. Subject or participant: an individual
person or animal a researcher studies.
O 4. Sample: a collection of subjects
researchers study.
O 5. Population: the collection of people or
animals from which researchers draw a
sample. Researchers study the sample
and generalize their results to the
population.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Independent Variable = the experimental
factor that is manipulated; the variable
whose effect is being studies.
Dependent Variable = the experimental factor
that is being measured; the variable that
may change in response to manipulations of
the independent variable
Operationalization
O Operationalization: to put an experiment into a form that
allows researchers to test the hypothesis
Independent variable
Dependent variable
DECIDING WHO OR WHAT
TO STUDY
O The goal in selecting a sample is that it
be representative of a larger population.
O Random sample = a sample that fairly
represents a population because each
member has an equal chance of
inclusion.
O Random assignment = assigning
participants to experimental and control
conditions by chance, thus minimizing
preexisting differences between those
assigned to the different groups.
RANDOM ASSIGNMENTS
O Experimental Group = Group of subjects that
receives the treatment or is exposed to the
independent variable.
O Control Group = the group that does not
receive the treatment or receives a
treatment presumed to be effective.
(Placebo & placebo effect)
Video
O The Strange powers of the placebo effect
CONTROLLING
FOR
BIAS
Experimenter Bias = the unconscious tendency for
O
O
O
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researchers to treat members of the experimental and
control group differently to increase the chance of
confirming their hypothesis.
Double blind procedure: occurs when neither the subjects
nor the researcher are aware of group placement.
Subject Bias = the tendency for subjects to behave in
certain ways.
Single blind procedure: controls subject awareness of group
assignment
Confounding Variables = any variable besides the
independent variable that could influence the results of the
experiment.
Operationalization
O Confounding variables
O Reliability
O Validity
SCARY
= ?
What makes a
movie scary?
What else might
cause nightmares?
How can we tell if
a child has had a
nightmare?
TERMINOLOGY
O Validity = the extent to which a test
measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
• Reliable = the extent to which a test yields
consistent results. When it can be
replicated it gets similar results.
O Confounding Variables = any variable
besides the independent variable that could
influence the results of the experiment.
Methods & Techniques
O
O
O
O
O
Naturalistic Observation
Case Studies
Surveys
Longitudinal Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
1. Naturalistic Observation
O Examine behavior “in
the field” – natural
habitat
O No interference
O Considerations:
+ behavior is authentic
+ describes what happens
- doesn’t explain why
- lack of control
- can be very difficult
2. Case Study
O An in-depth
investigation
O One person or
isolated group
O Considerations:
+ the more known,
the more helpful
+ useful for unique,
rare situations
- intentional distortion,
gaps, inaccuracies
- research bias
- may not apply to
others
To describe behavior psychologist use case studies,
surveys, and naturalistic observation
O Case studies = Study one or more
individuals in great depth. The research
collects data through interviews, direct
observation, psychological testing, or
examination of documents or records.
Correlational method expresses a
relationship between two variables without
stating a cause
O Positive Correlation = the presence of
one variable predicts the presence of
another variable.
O Negative Correlation = the presence
of one variable predicts the absence
of another variable.
O Correlations may be either weak of
strong and are expressed by a
number between -1 and +1. 0 means
no relationship.
Correlation between TV
watching and GPA
Correlation and Causation
O Alcohol use is associated with violence. (one
interpretation: Drinking triggers or
unleashes aggressive behavior)
Correlation and Causation
O Adolescents who frequently see smoking in
movies are more likely to smoke. (one
interpretation: movie stars’ behavior
influences impressionable teens)
O A college professor notices that the farther students sit
toward the back of the room, the worse their grades in the
course seem to be.
O A survey reveals that college students who eat breakfast
regularly have a higher GPA than those that don't eat
breakfast regularly.
3. Survey
O Sampling of a population for
opinions, facts,
characteristics, etc.
O written or oral questions
O Target Population = whole group
of study
O Sample = those participating in
the study
O Random – equal chance
O Stratified – proportional
O When subjects fill out surveys
about themselves, the data is
called self-report data.
O Why can this be misleading
information?
O Considerations:
+ done in relaxed, cooperative atmosphere
+ done by trained personnel
+ can gather a lot of data quickly
- may not be accurate
- measurement of answers may be vague
- tend to generalize
- wording can bias responses
- volunteer bias
4. Longitudinal Study
O Select a group –
study over extended
time to assess how
certain
characteristics
change or remain
the same during
development.
O Considerations:
+ accurate and
reliable
+ allows us to study
developmental
issues
- very time consuming
- subject drop-outs
5. Cross-Sectional Study
O Not over time – but
many different age
groups at same time
O Considerations:
+ saves time and money
+ results available sooner
- less reliable – diff. people, diff.
experiences