Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology
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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 Classical Conditioning
SECTION 2 Operant Conditioning
SECTION 3 Social Learning
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
3
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Chapter Objectives
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
• Describe classical conditioning, the
learning procedure in which associations
are made between an unconditioned
stimulus and a neutral stimulus. 
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
• Explain how operant conditioning occurs
when the consequences that follow a
behavior increase or decrease the
likelihood of that behavior occurring
again.
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the information.
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3: Social Learning
• Discuss how social learning involves
people making decisions and acting upon
the information available to them.
5
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– People acquire certain behaviors through
classical conditioning, a learning procedure in
which associations are made between an
unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. 
Objectives
– Describe the principles of classical
conditioning. 
– Outline the techniques of classical
conditioning.
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information. Section 1 begins on page 241 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– classical conditioning

– neutral stimulus 
– generalization 
– unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) 
– discrimination 
– unconditioned
response (UCR) 
– extinction
– conditioned stimulus
(CS) 
– conditioned response
(CR) 
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
8
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information. Section 1 begins on page 241 of your textbook.
Introduction
• In classical conditioning, a person’s or
animal’s old response becomes attached
to a new stimulus. 
• Classical conditioning is one example of
learning. 
• Learning can be defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior that results
from experience.
classical conditioning
a learning procedure in which
associations are made
between a natural stimulus and
a learned, neutral stimulus
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Introduction (cont.)
• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist,
discovered the principle of classical
conditioning by accident. 
• Pavlov became fascinated with how a dog
anticipated food and how salivation
occurred before the food was presented.
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Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov began his experiments by ringing
a tuning fork and then immediately
placing some meat powder on the dog’s
tongue. 
• The tuning fork was a neutral stimulus–it
had nothing to do with the response to
meat (salivation) prior to conditioning.
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does
not initially elicit a
response
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Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• Soon the dog began salivating as soon
as it heard the sound, even if the food
was not placed in its mouth. 
• Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral
stimulus will cause a formerly unrelated
response if it is presented regularly just
before the stimulus that normally brings
about that response. 
• Pavlov used the term unconditioned to
refer to stimuli and to the automatic,
involuntary responses they caused.
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Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• In the experiment, food was the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)–an
event that leads to a certain, predictable
response without previous training. 
• The salivation is an unconditioned
response (UCR)–a reaction that occurs
naturally and automatically when the
unconditioned stimulus is presented, in
other words, a reflex.
unconditioned stimulus
an event that elicits a certain
predictable response without
previous training
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unconditioned response
an organism’s automatic (or
natural) reaction to a
stimulus
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Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• An ordinarily neutral event that, after
training, leads to a response such as
salivation is termed a conditioned
stimulus (CS). 
• The salivation it causes is a conditioned
response (CR). 
• A conditioned response is learned.
conditioned stimulus
conditioned response
a once-neutral event that
the learned reaction to a
elicits a given response
conditioned stimulus
after a period of training in
which it has been paired with
an unconditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning (cont.)
Classical Conditioning (cont.)
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General Principles of Classical
Conditioning
• Classical conditioning helps animals and
humans adapt to the environment and
avoid danger.
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Acquisition
• Acquisition of a classically conditioned
response generally occurs gradually. 
• With each pairing of the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), the conditioned response
(CR)–or learned response–is
strengthened. 
• The timing of the association between the
conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus also influences
learning.
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Generalization and Discrimination
• Generalization occurs when an animal
responds to a second stimulus similar to
the original CS, without prior training with
the second stimulus. 
• When Pavlov conditioned a dog to
salivate at the sight of a circle, he found
that the dog would salivate when it saw an
oval as well.
generalization
responding similarly to a
range of similar stimuli
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Generalization and Discrimination
• Pavlov also taught the dog
discrimination–to respond only to the
circle, not the oval. 
(cont.)
• Generalization and discrimination are
complementary processes and are part of
your everyday life.
discrimination
the ability to respond
differently to similar
but distinct stimuli
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Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery
• A classically conditioned response, like
any other behavior, is subject to change. 
• Pavlov discovered that if he stopped
presenting food after the sound of the
tuning fork, the sound gradually lost its
effect on the dog. 
• He called this effect extinction because
the CR had gradually died out.
extinction
the gradual disappearance of
a CR when a CS is repeatedly
presented without the UCS.
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Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery (cont.)
• If a rest period is given following
extinction, the CR may reappear when the
CS is presented again but not followed by
a UCS. 
• This spontaneous recovery does not bring
the CR back to its original strength.
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Classical Conditioning and Human
Behavior
• John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
(1920) used conditioning on a human
infant in the case of Little Albert. 
• This experiment conditioned an 11-monthold infant named Albert to fear laboratory
rats. 
• It provided evidence that emotional
responses can be classically conditioned
in humans.
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Classical Conditioning and Human
Behavior (cont.)
• Hobart Mowrer and his wife Mollie (1938)
discovered a practical solution to the
problem of bed-wetting. 
– They developed a device known as the bell
and pad. 
– When the sleeping child moistens the sheet
with the first drops of urine, an alarm goes off
and awakens the child. 
– The child can then use the bathroom. 
• This has proven to be a very effective way
of treating bed-wetting problems.
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Examples of Common Conditioned
Responses
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Taste Aversions
• When people or animals become ill, they
seem to decide, “It must have been
something I ate,” even if they have not
eaten for several hours. 
• Psychologists can even predict that people
will probably blame a new food. 
• John Garcia and R.A. Koelling (1966) first
demonstrated this phenomenon with rats. 
– Whenever a rat took a drink of flavored
water, lights flashed and clicks sounded. 
– Some rats were then given an electric shock.
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Taste Aversions (cont.)
– All of these rats showed traditional classical
conditioning–the lights and the sounds became
CS, and the rats tried to avoid them in order to
avoid a shock. 
– The other rats were not shocked, but given a
drug that made them sick after they drank and
the lights and sounds occurred. 
– They developed an aversion only to the taste of
the water. 
• In summary, classical conditioning helps
animals and humans predict what is going
to happen.
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Taste Aversions (cont.)
• Learning associated with classical
conditioning may aid animals in finding
food or help humans avoid pain or injury. 
• Classical conditioning is an example of a
behaviorist theory. 
• Behaviorism is the attempt to understand
behavior in terms of relationships between
observable stimuli and observable
responses. 
• Behaviorists are psychologists who study
only those behaviors that they can
observe and measure.
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Classical Conditioning vs.
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
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1. Always a specific
stimulus (UCS) that
elicits the desired
response 
1. No stimulus; learner
must first respond
appropriately, then
behavior is reinforced 
2. UCS does not
depend on learner’s
response 
2. Reinforcement
depends upon
learner’s behavior 
3. Learner responds to
its environment 
3. Learner actively
operates on its
environment
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What is
the difference between a neutral
stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus?
A neutral stimulus does not initially
elicit a response; an unconditioned
stimulus elicits a certain predictable
response without previous training.
30
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea In a graphic
organizer similar to the one found
on page 248 of your textbook, list
and describe the general principles
of classical conditioning.
Your diagram should include:
– acquisition
– generalization
– discrimination
– extinction
– spontaneous recovery
31
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How are
generalization and discrimination
related to classical conditioning?
When one responds to a stimulus
similar to the conditioned stimulus,
generalization has occurred. The
ability to respond differently to
different stimuli is discrimination.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Under what
conditions might a conditioned
response become extinct?
A conditioned response might
become extinct when the participant
no longer associates the conditioned
stimulus with the unconditioned
stimulus.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Make a list of daily habits and
preferences and explain how
classical conditioning played a
part in creating them.
34
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Operant conditioning occurs when the
consequences that follow a behavior increase
or decrease the likelihood of that behavior
occurring again. 
Objectives
– Outline the principles of operant conditioning.
– Describe applications of operant conditioning.
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
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– operant conditioning  – response chain 
– reinforcement 
– aversive control 
– primary reinforcer 
– negative
reinforcement 
– secondary reinforcer 
– fixed-ratio schedule 
– variable-ratio
schedule 
– variable-interval
schedule 
– escape
conditioning 
– avoidance
conditioning
– shaping 
37
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Psychology.
Introduction
• Operant conditioning is learning from
the consequences of behavior. 
• The term operant is used because the
subject operates on or causes some
change in the environment. 
• This produces a result that influences
whether the subject will operate or
respond in the same way in the future.
operant conditioning
learning in which a certain action
is reinforced or punished, resulting
in corresponding increases or
decreases in occurrence
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Introduction (cont.)
• Operant conditioning differs from
classical conditioning. 
• One difference lies in how the
experimenter conducts the experiment. 
• In operant conditioning, the participant
must engage in a behavior in order for the
programmed outcome to occur. 
• In other words, operant conditioning is the
study of how voluntary behavior is
affected by its consequences.
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Operant Conditioning
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Reinforcement
• Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner has been
the psychologist most closely associated
with operant conditioning. 
– Skinner trained rats to respond to lights and
sounds in a special enclosure called a
Skinner box. 
– A rat, placed in the Skinner box, must learn
how to solve the problem of how to get food
to appear in a cup.
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Reinforcement (cont.)
• The food that appears in the cup is a
reinforcer in this experiment. 
• Reinforcement can be defined as a
stimulus or event that increases the
likelihood that behavior will be repeated.
• Whether or not a particular stimulus is a
reinforcement depends on the effect the
stimulus has on the learner.
reinforcement
stimulus or event that follows
a response and increases
the likelihood that the
response will be repeated
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
Reinforcement (cont.)
• Positive reinforcement occurs when
something the animal wants is added
after an action. 
• Negative reinforcement occurs when
something unpleasant is taken away if the
animal performs an action.
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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
• A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies
a biological need such as hunger, thirst,
or sleep. 
• A secondary reinforcer is one that has
been paired with a primary reinforcer and
through classical conditioning has
acquired value and reinforcement.
primary reinforcer
stimulus that is
naturally rewarding,
such as food or water
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secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money
that becomes reinforcing
through its link with a
primary reinforcer
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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
• With conditioning, almost any stimulus
can acquire value and become a
secondary reinforcer. 
(cont.)
• One experimenter (Wolfe, 1936) used
operant and classical conditioning to
teach chimps to value poker chips as
much as humans value money. 
• Money is the best example of a secondary
reinforcer in human society. 
• Other examples of secondary reinforcers
would include praise, status, and prestige.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• One important factor in operant
conditioning is the timing and frequency of
reinforcement. 
• Behavior that is reinforced every time it
occurs is said to be on a continuous
schedule of reinforcement. 
• When positive reinforcement occurs only
intermittently or on a partial schedule, the
responses are generally more stable and
last longer once they are learned.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• A person or animal that is continuously
reinforced for a behavior tends to
maintain that behavior only when the
reinforcement is given. 
• If the reinforcement stops, the behavior
quickly undergoes extinction. 
• Rats and humans that are reinforced on
partial schedules of reinforcement cannot
predict when the next reinforcement will
occur, so they have learned to be
persistent.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• There are four basic methods, or
schedules, of intermittent reinforcement. 
• Schedules of partial reinforcement may be
based on either: 
– the number of correct responses that the
animal makes between reinforcements 
– the amount of time that elapses before
reinforcement is given 
• In either case, reinforcement may appear
on a fixed, or predictable, schedule or on
a variable, or unpredictable, schedule.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement
depends on a specified quantity of
responses, such as rewarding every fourth
response. 
• In a variable-ratio schedule, the number
of responses needed for a reinforcement
changes from one time to the next.
fixed-ratio schedule
schedule of reinforcement in
which a specific number of
correct responses is required
before reinforcement can be
obtained
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variable-ratio schedule
schedule of reinforcement in
which an unpredictable
number of responses is
required before reinforcement
can be obtained
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• On a fixed-interval schedule, the first
correct response after a specified
amount of time is reinforced. 
• On a variable-interval schedule, the
time at which the reinforcement is given
changes.
fixed-interval schedule
schedule of reinforcement in
which a specific amount of
time must elapse before a
response will elicit
reinforcement
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variable-interval schedule
schedule of reinforcement
in which changing amounts
of time must elapse before
a response will obtain
reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• Ratio schedules are based on the
number of responses, while interval
schedules are based on time. 
• Responses are more resistant to
extinction when reinforced on a variable
rather than on a fixed schedule. 
• The most effective reinforcement must be
consistent for the same type of behavior.
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Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
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Shaping and Chaining
• Operant conditioning is not limited to
simple behaviors. 
• Shaping is a process in which
reinforcement is used to sculpt new
responses out of old ones. 
• If shaping is done properly, almost any
animal can learn some unusual tricks.
shaping
technique in which the
desired behavior is “molded”
by first rewarding any act
similar to that behavior and
53
then requiring closer
approximations to the
desired behavior before
giving the reward
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Combining Responses: Chaining
• In order to learn a skill, a person must be
able to put various new responses
together. 
• Responses that follow one another in a
sequence are combined into response
chains. 
• Each response produces the signal for the
next one.
response chain
learned reactions that follow
one another in sequence,
each reaction producing the
signal for the next
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Combining Responses: Chaining (cont.)
• It is often necessary to learn simple
responses before mastering the complex
pattern. 
• Therefore, before a person can learn to
perform a particular skill, he or she must
learn all the lower skills that make the
larger skill possible.
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Aversive Control
• Reinforcement refers to anything that
increases the frequency of an
immediately preceding behavior. 
• Aversive control refers to conditioning
that involves aversive, or unpleasant,
consequences. 
• There are two ways in which unpleasant
events can affect our behavior–as
negative reinforcers or as punishers.
aversive control
process of influencing
behavior by means of
unpleasant stimuli
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Negative Reinforcement
• In negative reinforcement, a painful or
unpleasant stimulus is removed. 
• The removal of unpleasant consequences
increases the frequency of a behavior. 
• Two uses of negative reinforcement that
psychologists have studied are escape
conditioning and avoidance conditioning.
negative reinforcement
increasing the strength of a
given response by removing or
preventing a painful stimulus
when the response occurs
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Negative Reinforcement (cont.)
• In escape conditioning, a person’s
behavior causes an unpleasant event to
stop. 
• In avoidance conditioning, the person’s
behavior has the effect of preventing an
unpleasant situation from happening.
escape conditioning
training of an organism to
remove or terminate an
unpleasant stimulus
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avoidance conditioning
training of an organism to
withdraw from an unpleasant
stimulus before it starts
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Punishment
• The most obvious form of aversive
control is punishment. 
• In punishment, an unpleasant
consequence occurs and decreases the
frequency of the behavior that produced it. 
• In negative reinforcement, escape or
avoidance behavior is repeated and
increases in frequency. 
• In punishment, behavior that is punished
decreases or is not repeated. 
• Such actions are called punishers.
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Disadvantages of Punishment
• Psychologists have found several
disadvantages in using aversive stimuli
to change behavior. 
– Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side
effects such as rage, aggression, and fear. 
– People learn to avoid the person delivering the
aversive consequences. 
– Punishment is likely to merely suppress rather
than eliminate such behaviors. 
– The punished behavior is likely to occur at
some other time or in some other place. 
– Punishment alone does not teach appropriate
and acceptable behavior.
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain
how the four schedules of partial
reinforcement work.
Behavior is reinforced according to
continuous or partial reinforcement
schedules that are based on numbers
of response or times of responses.
61
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea In a chart
similar to the one on page 258 of
your textbook, list four types of
reinforcers and give an example
of each.
62
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the
difference between escape
conditioning and avoidance
conditioning?
Escape conditioning is training the
subject to remove or terminate an
unpleasant stimulus.
Avoidance conditioning is training the
subject to remove or withdraw from an
unpleasant stimulus before it starts.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What are aversive
stimuli? Do you think that
caretakers should use aversive
stimuli to discipline children?
Why or why not?
Aversive stimuli are unpleasant
consequences.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Brainstorm typical daily activities
that are the result of some sort of
conditioning. Identify the specific
types of conditioning involved for
each activity.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Social learning, consisting of cognitive learning
and modeling, involves how people make
decisions and act upon the information
available to them. 
Objectives
– Cite the principles involved in cognitive learning
and modeling. 
– Identify the principles of learning used in
behavior modification.
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Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– social learning 
– cognitive learning 
– cognitive map 
– latent learning 
– learned helplessness 
– modeling 
– behavior modification 
– token economy
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Psychology.
68
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Introduction
• Social learning is the third type of
learning. 
• Social learning theorists view learning as
purposeful–going beyond mechanical
responses to stimuli or reinforcement. 
• The two types of social learning are
cognitive learning and modeling.
social learning:
form of learning in which
the organism observes and
imitates the behavior of
others
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Cognitive Learning
• Cognitive learning focuses on how
information is obtained, processed, and
organized. 
• Such learning is concerned with the
mental processes involved in learning. 
• Latent learning and learned helplessness
are examples of cognitive learning.
cognitive learning:
form of altering behavior that
involves mental processes
and may result from
observation or imitation
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Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
• In the 1930s, Edward Tolman argued that
learning involved more than mechanical
responses to stimuli; it involved mental
processes. 
– Tolman placed rats in mazes. 
– The rat explored the maze when there was no
reinforcer, such as food, present. 
– Then he placed food at the end of the maze
and recorded the path the rat followed to reach
the food. 
– After the rat learned to take the shortest route
to the food, Tolman would block that path. 
– The rat then took the next shortest route.
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Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
(cont.)
• Tolman believed the rat had developed
a cognitive map, or mental picture of a
place, of the maze. 
• Tolman called the type of learning
demonstrated by the rat latent learning. 
• Although learning typically occurs in the
absence of a reinforcer, it may not be
demonstrated until a reinforcer appears.
cognitive map:
a mental picture of spatial
relationships or relationships
between events
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latent learning:
learning that is not
demonstrated by an
immediate, observable
change in behavior
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Learned Helplessness
• Psychologists have shown that general
learning strategies can affect a person’s
relationship to the environment. 
• If a person has numerous experiences in
which his or her actions have no effect, he
or she may learn a general strategy of
helplessness or laziness. 
• In order to be able to try hard and to be
full of energy, people must learn that their
actions do make a difference.
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Learned Helplessness (cont.)
• If rewards come without effort, a person
never learns to work. 
• If pain comes no matter how hard one
tries, a person gives up. 
• This is called learned helplessness. 
• Martin Seligman believes that learned
helplessness is one major cause of
depression.
learned helplessness:
condition in which repeated
attempts to control a situation
fail, resulting in the belief that
the situation is uncontrollable
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Learned Helplessness (cont.)
• Seligman identified three important
elements of learned helplessness: 
– stability 
– globality 
– internality 
• Stability is a person’s belief that the state
of helplessness results from a permanent
characteristic. 
• The problem is either temporary (“I did
poorly on this math test because I was
sick”) or stable (“I never have done well
on math tests and never will”).
75
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Learned Helplessness (cont.)
• The person can also decide that the
problem is either specific (“I’m no good at
math tests”) or global (“I’m just dumb”). 
• Both stability and globality focus on the
student–on internal reasons for failure. 
• The student could also have decided that
the problem was external (“This was a
bad math test”). 
• People who attribute an undesirable
outcome to their own inadequacies will
probably experience depression along
with guilt and self-blame.
76
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Learned Helplessness (cont.)
77
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Modeling
• The second type of social learning is
modeling. 
• Modeling is the general term for the kind
of learning involving observation and
imitation.
modeling:
learning by imitating others;
copying behavior
78
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Modeling (cont.)
• Modeling includes three different types of
effects. 
• In the first type of modeling the behavior
of others simply increases the chances
that we will do the same thing. 
• No learning occurs in this case; no new
responses are acquired.
79
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Modeling (cont.)
• The second type of modeling is usually
called observational learning, or imitation. 
• An observer watches someone perform a
behavior and is later able to reproduce it
closely, though the observer was unable
to do this before observing the model. 
• Albert Bandura and his colleagues
demonstrated observational learning by
using a Bobo doll. 
• The experimenters found that children
were more likely to act aggressively after
they had observed aggressive behavior.
80
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Modeling (cont.)
• A third type of modeling involves
disinhibition. 
• When an observer watches someone else
engage in a threatening activity without
being punished, the observer may find it
easier to engage in that behavior later. 
81
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Behavior Modification
• Behavior modification is the systematic
application of learning principles to
change people’s actions and feelings. 
• Behavior modification involves a series of
well-defined steps to change behavior. 
• The success of each step is carefully
evaluated to find the best solution for a
given situation.
behavior modification:
systematic application of
learning principles to
change people’s actions
and feelings
82
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to display the information.
Behavior Modification (cont.)
• The behavior modifier usually begins by
defining a problem in concrete terms. 
• Modeling, operant conditioning, and
classical conditioning principles have
been used in behavior modification. 
• Modeling is often used to teach desired
behaviors.
83
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Computer-Assisted Instruction
• Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a
refinement of the concept of programmed
instruction that was introduced by S.L.
Pressey and refined by B.F. Skinner. 
• The essential concept of programmed
instruction is based on operant
conditioning. 
• The material to be learned is broken down
into simpler units called “frames.”
84
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (cont.)
• Each time the student shows that she or he
has learned the information in a frame, the
student is given positive reinforcement in
the form of new information, choices, or
point rewards. 
• Each question, or “prompt,” builds on
information already mastered.
85
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (cont.)
• Several principles of learning are at work
in CAI. 
– The student is learning complex material
through a response chain. 
– She or he is reinforced constantly. 
– Knowledge is being shaped in a systematic
and predictable way.
86
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How Social Learning Works
87
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to display the information.
Token Economies
• In a token economy people are
systematically paid to act appropriately. 
• In the real world, behaviorists argue, the
rewards are just as real; the rewards are
simply less systematic. 
• By systematically rewarding only
desirable behavior, token economies have
been set up in prisons, mental hospitals,
halfway houses, and classrooms.
token economy:
conditioning in which
desirable behavior is
reinforced with valueless
88
objects, which can be
accumulated and exchanged
for valued rewards
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Self-Control
• One of the most important features in
behavior modification is an emphasis on
asking people to set up personal systems
of rewards and punishments to shape their
own thoughts and actions. 
• This is a self-control program. 
• The first step in self-control is to define
the problem. 
• Researchers have found that just keeping
track of behavior often leads a person to
start changing it.
89
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Self-Control (cont.)
• The next step may be to set up a
behavioral contract. 
• A behavioral contract simply involves
choosing a reinforcer and making it
depend on some less desirable but
necessary act.
90
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Improving Your Study Habits
91
Improving Your Study Habits (cont.)
• One psychologist designed a program to
help students improve their study habits. 
• The students were told to set a time when
they would go to a small room in the
library they had not used before. 
• When they became bored, they were to
read one more page before they left. 
• Gradually they were able to study more
efficiently and for longer periods.
92
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Improving Your Study Habits (cont.)
• Requiring students to leave when they
became bored helped to reduce the
negative emotions associated with
studying. 
• Studying in a new place removed the
conditioned aversive stimulus. 
• In conclusion, classical and operant
conditioning and social learning do not
operate independently in our lives.
93
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary How is a
token economy an example of
behavior modification?
A token economy reinforces desirable
behavior in exchange for points or
rewards.
94
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea In a
diagram like the one on page 266
of your textbook, identify three
important elements of learned
helplessness.
Three important elements of learned
helplessness are stability, globality,
and internality.
95
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How can you
improve your study habits through
conditioning?
Your answers should include
discussions of aversive stimuli,
successive approximations, and
positive reinforcement.
96
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What principles of
modeling should parents consider
when rewarding and punishing
their children? Provide reasons
for your answer.
Parents should consider the
principles of learning. The application
of the principles of classical and
operant conditioning, along with
social learning, works to change
people’s behaviors.
97
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Section Assessment (cont.)
List events in your daily life that
you can associate with social
learning.
98
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov discovered the principle of
classical conditioning. 
• The four elements involved in classical
conditioning are UCS, UCR, CS, and CR. 
• Generalization and discrimination are
complementary processes in which the
participant responds to similar stimuli in the
same manner, or has the ability to respond
differently to dissimilar stimuli.
100
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Section 1: Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• A CR will sometimes reappear
spontaneously after extinction in a process
called spontaneous recovery. 
• Classical conditioning may be used to
affect human behavior, such as taste
aversions and fears.
101
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Section 2: Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning, as explained by B.F.
Skinner, means that human behavior is
influenced by one’s history of rewards and
punishments. 
• Reinforcers (positive and negative, and
primary and secondary) are stimuli that
increase the likelihood that certain
behaviors will be repeated. 
• Behavior is reinforced according to
continuous or partial reinforcement
schedules that are based on the number
of responses or times of responses.
102
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Section 2: Operant Conditioning (cont.)
• Reinforcing responses that are
increasingly similar to the desired behavior
is a process called shaping. 
• Punishments are stimuli that decrease the
likelihood that certain behaviors will be
repeated.
103
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Section 3: Social Learning
• Latent learning is not demonstrated by an
immediately observable change in
behavior at the time of learning. 
• If people have numerous experiences in
which their actions have no effect, they may
learn a general strategy of learned
helplessness. 
• Modeling is a type of learning that occurs
as the result of observation and imitation. 
• Behavior modification uses learning
principles to change people’s actions or
feelings.
104
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Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
1. A stimulus that elicits a predictable
response without training is called a(n)
___________________.
unconditioned stimulus
2. Money is an example of a(n) ________________
secondary
reinforcer.
3. ___________________
Operant conditioning is a type of learning
based on the consequences of actions.
4. In conditioning, ___________________
results
extinction
from the repeated performance of a response
without reinforcement.
5. ___________________
Escape conditioning is the process of
removing an aversive stimulus after it has started.
106
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
6. In a(n) ___________________,
people are
token economy
rewarded with valueless objects for behaving in
an appropriate manner.
7. ___________________
Behavior modification refers to the systematic
application of learning principles to change
people’s actions and feelings.
8. When children imitate the behavior of their
parents, they are practicing a form of learning
called ___________________.
modeling
107
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
9. The tendency for a stimulus similar to the original
conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to
the conditioned response is called
___________________.
generalization
10. The various ways that reinforcers occur after a
behavior has been elicited are referred to as
___________________.
schedules
108
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to display the answers.
Recalling Facts
What are the differences between
classical and operant conditioning?
Learning takes place automatically in
classical conditioning. In operant
conditioning, one learns from one’s
behavior and its consequences.
109
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
How do taste aversions develop?
Taste aversions develop after a bad
experience with a particular food. If
you become ill after eating a food, you
will learn to stay away from that food
for a long time.
110
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
What are the four partial schedules
of reinforcement, and how do they
differ?
fixed-ratio: depends on a specified quantity
of responses
variable-ratio: does not require a set number
of responses
fixed-interval: the first correct response after
a specified amount of time is reinforced
variable-interval: the time at which
reinforcement is given changes
111
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Chart
Study the chart below of O. Hobart Mowrer’s experiment to
stop bed-wetting. Then answer the questions on the following
slides.
112
Building Skills
Interpreting a Chart
What happened in this situation? What
things were paired to lead to awakening?
Although a full bladder does not awaken the
child, an alarm does. So an alarm (UCS) was
paired with a full bladder, the neutral
stimulus, to produce awakening (CR).
113
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Chart
Explain how the CS, UCS, CR, and UCR
relate to the end result (awakening).
The alarm (UCS) led to an awakening
(UCR). A full bladder, the neutral stimulus,
did not produce awakening. When the alarm
(UCS) was paired with the full bladder (CS),
awakening became the conditioned
response (CR).
114
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Chart
Which type of learning is displayed in
this chart?
Classical conditioning is displayed.
115
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to display the answer.
I am what happens when a stimulus
is repeatedly presented to a subject,
but no reward or reinforcement is
given for the response. What am I?
I am extinction.
116
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the
Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find
interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites
correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://psychology.glencoe.com
Recall a situation in which you taught
another person a skill or how to do a task.
Write a brief account about it in your journal.
Make sure to include a description of the
strategy you used in teaching.
Entry 1
Jog your memory by listing various ways skills can
be taught–verbal direction, demonstrations,
coaching, and so on.
Entry 2
Write about a personal fear. Your written response
will not be shared with the rest of the class.
Describe the fear in as much detail as possible.
Consider the origin of your fear–was it learned or
instinctive?
Record examples of fixed-interval and
variable-interval scheduling from your own
lives. Analyze the effectiveness of the
approach for each example and consider
whether another method might work better.
Review your academic record from the most
recent term. Write a brief description of your
study habits for each subject or class. What
conclusions can you draw about the
success of various methods of study?
The Case of
Little Albert
Read the case study presented on
page 249 of your textbook. Be
prepared to answer the questions that
appear on the following slides. A
discussion prompt and additional
information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
Did the results of Watson and
Rayner’s experiment support their
hypothesis? Explain.
Yes; Albert eventually became conditioned to fear
any furry white object that resembled a rat. The
white rat was used to elicit a conditioned
response (fear) in Albert. Then other white furry
objects were presented to him. His conditioned
response generalized to include these objects as
well as the rat.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
How did Albert’s response become
generalized?
Albert was conditioned specifically to fear rats,
but his response extended to rabbits and other
furry white objects that resembled rats.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
Critical Thinking How were the
principles of classical conditioning
used to reduce Peter’s fear of rabbits?
An extinction procedure was used to reduce
Peter’s fear of rabbits. The feared object (rabbit)
was paired with a pleasant experience, such as
eating ice cream. Peter began to associate the
rabbit with pleasant experiences.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
Discuss the following:
Was it ethical for Watson and Rayner to
teach a previously well-adjusted child to
be fearful?
Consider the value of the research
versus the negative impact of the
methods used.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
The Little Albert study led to questions
related to research ethics. As a result, the
American Psychological Association
published a set of binding ethical
principles that govern psychologists’
research, revised (1992) as follows on the
next two slides.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
– Planning research Using recognized standards of
competence and ethics, psychologists plan research
so as to minimize the possibility of misleading
results. 
– Responsibility Psychologists are responsible for the
dignity and welfare of participants. 
– Compliance with law and standards Psychologists
obey all state and federal laws and regulations.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
The Case of
Little Albert
– Research responsibilities Psychologists reach an
agreement regarding the rights and responsibilities of
both participants and researcher(s) before research is
started. 
– Informed consent When consent is required,
psychologists obtain a signed informed consent before
starting any research with a participant. 
– Deception in research Deception is used only if no
better alternative is available.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 249 of your textbook.
Continued on next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. The girl in the second picture
is using generalization. 
2. The girl in front of the lockers
is exhibiting discrimination. 
3. Possible answers include: All
cafeteria food is bad; all long
movies are boring. 
4. A possible answer is that it is
important to judge people as
individuals and not generalize
about them.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
3. Amanda learns that
she will receive
attention if she
plays with others. 
Answers:
1. Amanda receives
attention when she
is playing alone. 
2. Amanda learns that
she will not receive
attention if she
plays alone. 
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
4. The teacher
reduces the amount
of praise she gives
Amanda to see if
the behavior is
becoming selfmotivated; the goal
is to get Amanda to
play with others
without needing
reinforcement.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. The girl who is reading and
two students that are writing
are earning tokens. 
2. Tokens can be traded for items
at the Token Exchange. 
3. Expected behaviors are
included on the notice on the
bulletin board and through
teacher explanation. 
4. Answers will vary. You may say
previous behaviors will return
when tokens are no longer
given or that new behaviors will
last.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Fertile Minds
Introduction
Use the Reader’s Dictionary that appears
on the next slide to help explain unfamiliar
terms as you read the article on pages
270–271 of your textbook. Be prepared to
answer the questions that follow.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Reader’s Dictionary
neuron: nerve cells
equipped to receive and
transmit electrical signals
malleable: capable of
being altered by outside
forces or influences
dendrites: extensions
from a nerve cell that
receive signals from other
neurons
axon: single, threadlike
structure within a neuron
that carries signals to
other neurons
metabolism: chemical
changes in living cells by
which energy is provided
for vital processes
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Analyzing the Article
What “discovery” does this article
detail?
Scientists have found growing evidence that the
electrical activity of brain cells changes the
physical structure of the brain. Such activity is
said to begin about 10 to 12 weeks after
conception. The mental circuits that are
developed are carved into patterns that will, over
time, enable the newborn infant to recognize a
father’s voice and a mother’s touch. Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Analyzing the Article
CRITICAL THINKING Do you agree
that your “uniqueness” was
developed in the first three years of
your life? Why or why not?
Answers will vary but you should be able to
support your opinion.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Discussion
People often compare the human brain
to a computer. How is the brain different
from a computer?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Discussion
“Rich experiences…really do produce
rich brains.” Why is providing a
stimulating environment to humans in
the first years of life so important?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Fertile Minds
Discussion
Use Chapter 9 to review the importance
of the environment in learning. Discuss
why Dr. Greenspan describes brain
development as a “dance” between
genes and the environment.
This feature is found on pages 270–271 of your textbook.
Juggling Like Dogs
From the Classroom of Dale Kinney
Ralston High School, Ralston, NE
Goal: This activity will help you gain a
better understanding of conditioning,
shaping, positive and negative
reinforcement, and modeling.
Supplies: three tennis balls for each
participant.
Continued on next slide.
Juggling Like Dogs
From the Classroom of Dale Kinney
Ralston High School, Ralston, NE
Step 1: One Ball
Toss one ball about three feet
into the air, and catch it with
your other hand. Complete the
toss with both hands, back and
forth, using only one ball.
Practice this step repeatedly.
Continued on next slide.
Juggling Like Dogs
From the Classroom of Dale Kinney
Ralston High School, Ralston, NE
Step 2: Two Balls
Using two balls, throw one in
the air and, when it reaches the
apex, throw the other ball in the
air, making the balls crisscross
as shown in the diagram.
Practice this step for a few
minutes.
Continued on next slide.
Juggling Like Dogs
From the Classroom of Dale Kinney
Ralston High School, Ralston, NE
Step 3: Three Balls
Hold three balls. Whichever
hand holds two balls at the
start begins the sequence.
With each hand, alternate
throwing a ball into the air as
shown in the diagram.
The keys to mastering this
step are lots of practice and
consistent tosses.
The concept of association can be traced
back to the Greek philosopher Plato, who
believed that learning largely relies on
associating a new object with existing
knowledge of related objects or concepts.
Association is strongly linked to recollection
or memory.
Millions have read Walden Two, B.F. Skinner’s
best-known work. One small group created a
community in Virginia based on the Walden Two
model. Although what became known as the
Twin Oak Community has survived, its
members have long ago given up trying to
shape behavior based on Skinner’s
reinforcement method.
The study habits that work most effectively for
one person may not work well for someone else.
It is even likely that the study habits that are
effective for most girls will be different from the
effective study habits of boys. There appears to
be differences between the brains and thinking
styles of girls and boys. This difference is not
about intelligence or ability, but rather about
approach. Boys tend to concentrate on one
specific aspect of a problem, while girls may
approach a problem from many angles.
Canalization, the process in which people are
conditioned to prefer one stimulus over
another because they perceive that stimulus
as more satisfying, differs across cultures.
People in different cultures are conditioned to
various preferences of food, color, and
beauty. For example, most people in the
United States do not consider insects to be
edible, while other cultures may consider
them a delicacy.
The Suzuki Method of music education was
introduced in the 1950s by Japanese violinist
Shinichi Suzuki. He believes that children can best
learn an instrument by first observing others playing
it, then imitating what they see. He compared
learning to play an instrument to learning language
skills. Using the Suzuki Method, children as young
as three or four become skilled musicians before
they can read one note of music. Reading music is
learned later at about the same time that children
learn to read words.
Taste Aversions
Many chemotherapy patients develop taste
aversions to the last thing they ate before
receiving treatment. Over the course of
chemotherapy treatment, some patients
develop taste aversions to foods they have
always enjoyed. To avoid these taste aversions
and the accompanying weight loss,
chemotherapy patients are now given an odd
tasting piece of candy immediately before
treatment.
Latent Learning
According to recent research, the elements that
contribute to latent learning may begin in the
early months of human life. Research at
Rutgers University suggests that human infants
can remember fairly detailed experiences and
surroundings. In addition, University of
Massachusetts psychologist Rachel Clifton
found that infants could retrieve that memory as
long as 18 months later.
Phobias
• A phobia is an intense fear of something that
interferes with a person’s daily life. 
• In a class discussion, come up with a list of
common phobias or intense fears (i.e., fear of
heights, fear of spiders, fear of flying, fear of
enclosed places). 
• In groups, select a phobia and describe how
shaping could be used to overcome the fear.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
• Research some of the many techniques that
psychologists have developed to help people
learn self-control. 
• Draw up a formal behavior contract (somewhat
like a legal document) intended to help you
overcome a simple behavioral problem. 
• Check your contracts to make sure they
include appropriate reinforcers and use
successive approximations.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 264 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
What other bad habits do people
form by opting for immediate
positive reinforcement over delayed
punishment?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
1849–1936
Click the picture to listen to
a biography on Ivan Pavlov.
Be prepared to answer
questions that appear on
the next two slides.
This feature is found on page 245 of your textbook.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
1849–1936
How did Pavlov’s
research make him
famous?
He discovered that salivation
and the action of the
stomach were linked to
conditioned reflexes in the
autonomic nervous system.
This allowed Pavlov to study
human behavior objectively.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 245 of your textbook.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
1849–1936
What did Pavlov
believe about
conditioned reflexes?
He believed that they could
explain the behavior of
psychotic people because
those who withdrew from the
world associated all stimuli
with injury or threat.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 245 of your textbook.
End of Custom Shows
WARNING! Do Not Remove
This slide is intentionally blank and is set to auto-advance to end custom
shows and return to the main presentation.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.