AP Bio Mid-Term Review
Solomon Text:
Chapters 1-16, 18-21
Ms. Burakiewicz
2009
Biochemistry
• Water properties!
• Functional groups
• Carbohydrates
– Mono, di, poly-saccarides
• Lipids
– Triglycerides: glycerol & 3 fatty acids
– Ester bonds
• Proteins
– Amino acids, peptide bonds
– Levels of structure
• 1- aa chiain
• 2- alpha helix, beta pleated sheet,
• 3- interactions of side groups (H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic, di-sulfide
bridges-s)
• 4-
– Enzymes
Reactions
• Hydrolysis
– Catabolic (breaks down), exergonic (releases energy
in broken bonds)
• Dehydration Synthesis
– Anabolic (building), endergonic (stores energy in
bonds that form)
• Enzyme
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Catalysts
Lowers activation energy
Allosteric regulation
Denaturation, Temp, pH, enzyme/substrate conc
Cells
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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Cell Membrane: phospholipids! Properties…
Transport types
Diffusion / Osmosis
– Passive transport (high  low)
• Water potential (measured in bars)
– Solute & pressure potential
– Lower the water potential (more negative) = more solute
– Tension = produced by negative water potential
• Turgor Pressure / Plasmolysis
Cells continued…
• Cell communication
– Receptors
• carbohydrates on surface
– Ion channels
– Enzyme linked receptors
– G-proteins
Cell Respiration: Aerobic (oxygen)
• Enzymes!
• Glycolysis  2 pyruvate
– 2 ATP invested
– Cytoplasm
– Net 2 ATP, 2NADH
• Oxidation of 2 Pyruvate  2 Acetyl CoA, 2NADH
• Krebs cycle
– Matrix of Mitochondria
– 2 ATP produced (one per cycle)
– Redox reactions:
• NAD  NADH (3 per cycle = 6)
• FAD  FADH2 (1 per cycle = 2)
• ETC
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Across the inner membrane of Mito.
Chemiosmosis: proton gradient/ATP synthase
Cytochromes
Oxygen is final electron acceptor!
32 ATP produced
• NADH = 3 ATP each (10X3 = 30 ATP)
• FADH = 2 ATP each (2X2 = 4)
• 30+4+2 = ~38 ATP per molecule of glucose
Mitochondrial
Structure!
Cell Respiration: Anaerobic
• NO Oxygen present!
• Just Glycolysis: Net 2 ATP ONLY!!
– cytoplasm
• Alcohol Fermentation (yeast)
• Lactic Acid Fermentation (bacteria, muscle
cells)
• No Kreb’s or ETC…
Photosynthesis
• ETC: photons excite electrons
– Produces ATP & NADPH
• Calvin Cycle: carbon fixation
• C3: regular photo
– RuBP, rubisco enzyme!
• C4
• CAM
• Chromatography: separation of pigments
– Pigment movement: solubility, H-bonds
Mitosis / Meiosis:
DNA replicates once for both!
• Chromatin, chromosomes, kinetochore
• Cell Cycle (interphase & Mitosis)
– Interphase
• G1= growth
• S= synthesis of DNA
• G2= growth, prep for division, replicate organelles
– G1, G2 checkpoints: regulated by protein kinases
– Mitosis
• Cancer: uncontrolled cell division
– Metastasis: spread of cancer cells to other body parts
Mitosis
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Does not include Interphase
Prophase: chromosomes are visible
Metaphase: line up at middle
Anaphase: chromatids separate
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Meiosis
• Interphase precedes it!
• Sordaria Lab: crossing over in Asci
• Prophase I: crossing over occurs when
tetrads form (homologous pairs),
recombination
– Crossing over more likely on genes farthest apart
on chromosome
Heredity
• Test cross: to determine the genotype of a Dom
genotype, always cross with aa
• Polyploidy
• Gene mapping
• Genetic disorders: non-disjunction
– Karyotyping: be able to read results!
– Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
• Sickle Cell Anemia
• Frameshift mutation
Heredity
• Polygenic inheritance: height, skin color
• Pleiotropy
• Pedigree charts
– Autosomal Dominant, recessive
– X-linked traits
• Carriers (females)
• Color-blindness, hemophilia & males
Genetics
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Complimentary bases
Eukaryotic Chromosome structure
DNA Replication (prokaryotic / eukaryotic)
Transcription / Translation into protein
RNA’s life…
Bacterial: Transformation, Conjugation, plasmids
Transposons: moving genes
Genetic Technologies
Bacterial Operons: (turn genes on /off)
– inducible, repressible, binding site on promoter region
of a gene
Evolution
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Populations evolve
Lamarck: acquired characteristics, use/dis-use
Darwin / Wallace
Homologous structures
Reproductive isolation
– Behavioral Isolation
– Temporal isolation (timing of mating)
– Mechanical isolation (structural difference)
• Hybrids
• Genetic Drift
– Founder effect
– Bottleneck effect
• Gene flow
Evolution
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Gradualism
Punctuated equilibrium
Biogeographical evidence
Natural selection
Adaptive radiation
Selection types: directional, disruptive,
stabilizing
• Hardy Weinberg!! Conditions, & equations
• Heterozygote advantage