CHAPTER 1
Alien Encounters:
Europe in the
Americas
The American Nation,
12e
Mark. C. Carnes
John A. Garraty
COLUMBUS
• TIERRA!—Christopher
Columbus made landfall at the
West Indian island he called
San Salvador (natives called it
Guanahani) on October 12,
1492
• Columbus was looking for a
shortcut to the lands of Japan
and China (visited by Marco
Polo) so he did not realize he
had discovered a New World
APPEAL OF ASIA
• Columbus was searching for a route
to Asia for reasons of trade
• Spices: pepper, cinnamon, ginger,
nutmeg, cloves helped cover the
taste of spoiled meat
• Tropical foods: rice, figs, oranges
• Other goods: perfumes, silk &
cotton, rugs, textiles, dyestuffs, fine
steel products, precious stones,
various drugs
• If he could cut out the many
middlemen, there was a large profit
to be made
PRINCE HENRY the NAVIGATOR
• The third son of John I of Portugal, Henry
became interested in navigation and
exploration
• Ships were clumsy, instruments for
reckoning latitude were inaccurate at best,
and there were no instruments for figuring
longitude
• Henry attempted to improve and codify
navigational knowledge
PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES
• Henry’s captains sailed westward to the
Madeiras, the Canaries and south along
the coast of Africa
• In 1445, Dinis Dias reached Cape Verde
• In the 1480s King John II undertook
systematic new explorations focusing on
reaching India
COLUMBUS
• A weaver’s son from Genoa, Christopher
Columbus was committed to the westward
route to India and when the Portuguese
showed no interest, he went to Spain
• There he received the funds to equip the Pinta,
Niña, and Santa Maria, the title Admiral of the
Ocean Sea, political control over all lands
discovered, and 10% of the profits from trade
• Even after three additional voyages, continued
to believe he had found a route to Asia
SPAIN’S AMERICAN EMPIRE
• In 1493, Pope Alexander VI divided the nonChristian world between Spain and Portugal and
the terms of exploitation were worked out in the
Treaty of Tordesillas
• The line that was drawn intended to leave Africa
to Portugal and the New World to Spain but the
South American continent protruded and, as a
result, Brazil became Portuguese territory
• The Spanish spread out from their base on
Hispaniola (Santo Domingo)
Voyages of Discovery
SPANISH DISCOVERIES
• 1513: Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the
Isthmus of Panama and discovered the
Pacific Ocean
• 1519: Hernán Cortés conquered the
Aztecs
• 1519: Ferdinand Magellan started 3 year
voyage around world
• 1530s Francisco Pizarro conquered the
Incas
SPANISH DISCOVERIES
• 1513: Juan Ponce de Léon explored the
east coast of Florida
• 1520s Pánfilo de Narváez explored the
Gulf Coast of North America westward
from Florida
• His lieutenant, Alvar Nuñez de Vaca, and
three companions (including a black slave
named Esteban) wandered for years until
they made their way across New Mexico
and Arizona to Mexico City
SPANISH DISCOVERIES
• 1539-1543 Hernando de Soto traveled
north from Florida to the Carolinas, then
westward to the Mississippi River
• At the same time Francisco Vásquez de
Coronado ventured as far north as Kansas
and as far west as the Grand Canyon
SPANISH CIVILIZATION
• Within 50 years of Columbus’ landfall,
Spain controlled a huge empire
• By the early 1600s Spanish explorers had
reached Virginia and there were small
Spanish settlements at Saint Augustine in
Florida and at Santa Fe in New Mexico
• By 1570s the Spanish had founded 200
cities and towns, set up printing presses,
published pamphlets and books, and
established universities in Mexico City and
Lima
SPANISH MOTIVES
• Greed for gold and power
• Sense of adventure
• Wish to improve their
lives
• Desire to Christianize
Indians
• Vision of the New World
as a reincarnation of the
Garden of Eden, even
expecting to find the
Fountain of Youth
INDIANS & EUROPEANS
• The Requiermento, read in Spanish upon
landing, promised the natives would be welcome
if they did not resist, but that any struggle would
result in the enslavement of both the natives and
their families
• Laid the blame for enslavement on the victims
• Spanish were not alone, wherever Europeans
landed they mistreated and sometimes
slaughtered the people they encountered
• Even in New England, where relations were
initially amicable and somewhat fair, conditions
deteriorated within a few years
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Religion
• Indians worshipped a variety of gods but
Europeans saw them as non-religious
• Worse, viewed them as heathens or even
minions of Satan
• Some saw them as unworthy of conversion while
others, such as the Spanish friars, believed in
the value of conversion
• As late as 1569, when Spain introduced the
Inquisition in the colonies, natives were exempt
because they were viewed as incapable of
rational judgment
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Environment
• Indians cleared fields, burned underbrush
in the forests, diverted rivers and streams,
built roads and settlements, and built huge
earthen mounds
• Yet due to metal plows and axes, the
European imprint was deeper and more
devastating
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Property
• Generally, Indians did not value private
property
• Europeans saw this lack of concern for
material things as an indication that
Indians were childlike creatures, not to be
treated as equals
• Also saw as justification to take the land
and use it “properly”
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Government
• Europeans assumed Indian chiefs ruled
with the same authority as their own kings
• Instead Indian loyalties were shaped by
complex kinship relations
• As a result, Europeans often accused
Indians of treachery when some failed to
honor commitments made by their chiefs
• Indians, for their part, did not understand
such European customs as child rulers
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Land
• Indians held land communally
• Tribal boundaries were traditional and not
marked by treaties or fences
• Agricultural products were often stored
communally and drawn on by all as
needed
• Indians resented the intensity of European
cultivation
RELATIVITY OF CULTURAL
VALUES—Warfare
• Indians did not seek to possess land and as a
result did not seek to destroy their enemies but
– to prove their own valor
– to avenge an insult or perceived wrong
– to acquire captives who could take the place of
missing family members
• Preferred ambush to confrontation with a
superior force
• Europeans preferred to fight in heavily armed
masses that aimed to obliterate the enemy
DISEASE & POPULATION LOSS
• Issue of terms: genocide and holocaust
• While clearly there was a drastic reduction in the
Indian population after the arrival of Europeans,
it lacked the purposeful intention implied by the
above words
• In fact, Europeans often needed the Indians
help; for example:
– Spanish needed natives to work in mines and fields
and to build roads and buildings
– French needed them for trade
– English depended on them for additional food and
knowledge
DISEASE & POPULATION LOSS
• Certainly the Europeans practiced
barbarity in dealing with the natives
– De Las Casas and condemnation of Spanish
– Percy and example of English misbehavior
• But biggest killer was the many diseases
(smallpox, measles, bubonic plague,
diphtheria, influenza, malaria, yellow fever,
and typhoid) Europeans brought with them
• Indians had no immunity, resulting in
several million deaths
SPAIN’S EUROPEAN RIVALS
• 1497 & 1498: John Cabot explored
Newfoundland and the northeastern coast of the
continent for England
• 1524: Giovanni da Verrazano explored from
Carolina to Nova Scotia for France
• 1534: Jacques Cartier, also exploring for France,
sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as present day
Montreal
• Fishermen from France, Spain, Portugal and
England exploited the cod and other fish off the
coast of Newfoundland
WHY SPAIN FIRST?
• Spain had a large measure of internal
tranquility by the 16th century while France
and England were suffering from religious
and political strife
• Spanish seized those areas of the
Americas which were best suited for
producing quick returns
• First half of 16th century, under Charles V,
Spain dominated Europe as well as
Americas, controlling the Low Countries,
most of central Europe, and part of Italy
DECLINE OF SPAIN
• Under Charles’ successor, Philip
II, Spain seemed at its peak
• Added Portugal in 1580
• But there were a number of
problems:
– Corruption of Spanish court
– Overdependence on gold and
silver of colonies undermined local
economy
– Disruption of Catholic Church
caused by Protestant Reformation
PROTESTANT REFORMATION
• Catholic Church suffering
from a variety of problems
in the early 1500s:
– Sale of indulgences
– Luxurious lifestyle of Pope
and papal court
• Why were protests so
successful this time?
• Charismatic Leaders
– Martin Luther, who started the
movement in 1517
– John Calvin, who helped carry it
forward
PROTESTANT REFORMATION—
Political Support
• German princes stopped payments to Rome and
seized church property
• Swiss cities established political independence
from Catholic kings
• Francis I of France, although remaining Catholic,
exerted authority over clergy
• Efforts of Spain to suppress Protestantism in
Low Countries fueled nationalist movements
• Henry VIII of England broke from Rome in 1534
when, in search of a male heir, he tried to get his
marriage annulled but the Pope refused
PROTESTANT REFORMATION—
Economic Issues
• It was originally theorized that because of the
Catholic Church’s idea of “just price” and the fact
that dislike of capital accumulation stifled
merchant acquisitiveness, the merchant class
supported the Protestant Reformation
• However, many merchants, especially some of
the most successful (such as Italians and the
wool merchants of Flanders), remained Catholic
• In some places merchants backed new
Protestant sects because made less financial
demands than Catholic Church
PROTESTANT REFORMATION—
Economic Issues
• As commercial classes rose to positions of
influence, England, France and United
Provinces of the Netherlands, experienced a
flowering of trade and industry
• DUTCH: built the largest merchant fleet in the
world, captured most of the Far Eastern trade
from the Portuguese, infiltrated Spain’s
Caribbean stronghold
• ENGLISH: merchant companies began to play
vital role as colonizers forming joint stock
companies that were predecessors to modern
corporation
ENGLISH BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA
• Muscovy Company spent large sums
looking for a passage to China around
Scandanavia
• In the 1570s, backed by Queen Elizabeth I
of England, Martin Frobisher made three
voyages across the Atlantic looking for a
northwest passage to Asia or new sources
of gold
• The queen also supported privateers such
as Sir Francis Drake, who preyed on
Spanish shipping
BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH
SETTLEMENT
• Elizabeth also backed settlement efforts such as
the unsuccessful efforts of Sir Humphrey Gilbert
in 1578, 1570, and 1583
• The first settlement, on Roanoke Island off the
coast of North Carolina in 1585, was sponsored
by Sir Walter Raleigh
• Ships due to arrive in 1588 to re-supply did not
come due to the attack of the Spanish Armada
and when ships did arrive in 1590, not a trace of
the colonists could be found
MOTIVES FOR ENGLISH
SETTLEMENT
• Settlement efforts were costly and in 1584
Richard Hakluyt urged crown support
• Stressed
– Military advantages
– The spread of Protestantism
– The possible enrichment of the parent country
through expanding markets, increasing tax revenues,
and the provision of employment and raw materials
• Elizabeth, however, did not pursue Hakluyt’s
suggestions and the settlement that started in
earnest after her death in 1603 was backed
mainly by merchant capitalists not the crown
SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA
• James I chartered two companies
(one based in London; the other of
Bristol & Plymouth merchants) to
settle Virginia (the name for all
area controlled by England at the
time)
• In 1607 the first 100 settlers arrived
and settled Jamestown in the
Chesapeake Bay area
• Unfortunately, 1/3 of settlers were
gentlemen, many of the rest were
gentlemen’s servants
• With few wilderness skills and
more spent time hunting gold than
planting crops, over half died the
first winter
Portrait of Pocahontas, from painting by Wm.
Sheppard
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
Detroit Publishing Company Collection
JAMESTOWN
• While company directors stressed futile pursuits,
Captain John Smith urged his fellow colonists to
build houses and raise food and asked for the
company to send more settlers with useful skills
• Recognizing the weakness of the colonists,
Smith tried to maintain good relations with the
local Indians though he had few compunctions
about cheating them and little respect for them
• Between 1606 and 1622, the London Company
invested more than £160,000 and sent over
6000 colonists
• No dividends were ever paid and by 1622 only
2,000 colonists were alive and that number was
down to 1,300 two years later
JAMESTOWN
• BAD NEWS: While the colonists were
dependent on aid from the Powhatan
Indians, they treated them badly and soon
were engaged in warfare with them
• GOOD NEWS: Colonists began to prosper
when started raising their own food and
cattle and especially when they began
tobacco cultivation
TOBACCO
• In 1612, John Rolfe introduced West
Indian tobacco.
• While the advent of tobacco allowed
colonists to buy manufactured goods, by
then they had served their seven years of
indenture; since the London Company had
made it easy for settlers to obtain their
own land, no profit went to the London
Company
SELF-GOVERNMENT
• In the same year Rolfe revolutionized
tobacco, a revised charter extended the
London Company’s control over affairs in
Virginia
– Appointed a single resident governor with
sufficient authority
– Made it easier for settlers to obtain land
• In 1619 created rudimentary selfgovernment with the creation of a House
of Burgesses consisting of delegates
chosen in each district
ROYAL COLONY
• In 1622 a bloody attack by the Powhatans
who suffered increasing colonial
encroachment on their land resulted in the
deaths of 347 colonists
• While not enough to stop the growing
colony, morale sank and James I revoked
the charter in 1624 and placed the colony
under direct royal control
“PURIFYING” THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND
• Henry VIII had broken from the Catholic Church
and founded the Anglican Church, though his
daughter Mary attempted to reinstate
Catholicism during her reign (1553-1558)
• It was under his second daughter Elizabeth
(1558-1603) that the Anglican Church became
the official church for all of England
• This church closely resembled the Catholic
Church except the King/Queen of England was
the head of the church and services were in
English not Latin
DISSENTERS
• On one side were ardent Catholics who chose to
leave England or practice their faith in private
• On the other were more radical Protestants
(Puritans) who felt changes had not gone far
enough and insisted the church needed to be
“purified” of Roman leftovers
• Among their biggest problems with church
teachings was the implication that anyone other
than God could free one from the mire of sin
• While only the heretic Arminians stated that one
could absolve oneself through actions on earth,
the Anglican Church implied that ones’ good
actions might sway God’s view
DISSENTERS
• Congregationalists—favored
decentralized church structure with the
members of each church and their chosen
ministers beholden only to one another
• Presbyterians—favored some
organization on local level but one
controlled by elected laymen not clergy
• Separatists—unlike Puritans did not
believe that Church could be saved,
instead they believed it was necessary to
separate from it, which meant they either
had to go into exile or underground
PILGRIMS
• In 1608, 125 separatists left England
for the Low Countries, first to
Amsterdam then to Leyden
• By 1619 disheartened by the
difficulties of making a living,
disappointed by failure of others from
England to join them, and distressed
that their children were being led
astray from the path of
righteousness, these “Pilgrims”
decided to leave in search of a better
place
TO AMERICA
• The Puritans negotiated with the Virginia
Company to settle at the mouth of the Hudson
River on the upper edge of the company’s
territory
• The Pilgrims formed a joint stock company to
help pay for the trip as well as taking nonPilgrims (of 100 who set out only 35 were
Pilgrims)
• Left from Plymouth, England, on the Mayflower,
in September 1620; in December, arrived at
Cape Cod Bay, north of their destination and the
territory controlled by the London Company
A NEW COMPACT
• Pilgrims were outside the area
controlled by the London Company
so in order to establish a
government they drew up the
Mayflower Compact, thus
establishing the early American
ideal that a society should be based
on a set of rules chosen by its
members
• The Pilgrims went ashore at
Plymouth and suffered through a
winter of starvation in which half
died
TISQUANTUM
• The Pilgrims were aided in survival when
in March 1621, Samoset, an Algonquian
Indian who spoke English, introduced
them to Tisquantum (called Squanto by
the Pilgrims) who had been in England
• Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to plant
and served as an intermediary with
Massasoit, chief of the large local
Wampanoag tribe
WINTHROP & MASSACHUSETTS
BAY COLONY
• Before Puritans arrived the Plymouth Company
had tried settling on the Kennebec River in 1607
but had not succeeded though fisherman
continued to come to the area, christened New
England by Captain John Smith in 1614
• In 1620, even as Puritans headed for America,
the Plymouth Company reorganized itself as the
Council for New England
• Group was more interested in real estate deals
than in settlement and one of deals was a small
grant to a group of Puritans from Dorchester
who settled in Salem in 1629
WINTHROP & MASSACHUSETTS
BAY COLONY
• These Dorchester Puritans organized the
Massachusetts Bay Company and obtained a
royal grant in the area between the Charles and
Merrimack Rivers
• Other Puritans (nearly 1,000 in the summer of
1630) joined in a mass migration as King
Charles I cracked down on them
• These Puritans carried with them the charter for
the Massachusetts Bay Company and by fall
they had founded Boston and several other
towns
MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY
• While only a minority of migrating Puritans
came to Massachusetts, by 1640 over
10,000 had arrived
• They had less difficulty than Jamestown
because of the constant influx of new
recruits who came with families and
worldly possessions in tow
• Believing their mission to be divinely
inspired, they elected John Winthrop as
governor, a position he held for 20 years
A CITY ON A HILL
• Winthrop declared that the Puritan
settlement would be “as a City upon a Hill,
the eies of all people are upon us….”
• Colonists created an elected legislature,
the General Court, and limited the vote
and office holding to male members of the
church though clergymen were not
allowed to hold office
PURITAN CHURCHES
• After getting permission from the General
Court, a group of colonists who wished to
form a new church would select a minister
and conduct their spiritual matters as they
saw fit
• Membership was restricted to those who
could present satisfactory evidence of
having experienced “saving grace”
• In the 1630s, the majority of people were
members.
TROUBLEMAKERS:
Roger Williams & Anne Hutchinson
• ROGER WILLIAMS: an extreme separatist who
arrived in 1631 and was minister in Salem by 1635,
quickly offended everyone through his religious
libertarianism and his insistence that it was a sin to
take land without buying it from the Indians
• By the end of 1635, Williams was asked to leave the
colony within 6 weeks which he did in January 1636
• He traveled to the head of Narragansett Bay, worked
out a deal with the Indians and founded Providence,
establishing Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations after obtaining a charter from Parliament
in 1644
TROUBLEMAKERS:
Roger Williams & Anne Hutchinson
• ANNE HUTCHINSON: arrived in Boston in 1631 where, as
a midwife, she often discussed with women her criticisms of
the minister
• Debate was over issue of who God’s “Saints” were
– Ministers said could not be sure so had to monitor your behavior
– Hutchinson said that smacked of Catholicism and Saints should just
know; also suggested that those possessed of God’s grace were
exempt from the rules of good behavior and even from the laws of
the Commonwealth (accused of antinomianism)
• After claiming regular communication with God, Hutchinson
was banished and left with supporters for Rhode Island in
1637
• In 1642 she moved to the Dutch colony of New Netherland
where she and all but her youngest child were killed by
Indians
OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES
• Owners of the Plymouth Company divided their
holdings in 1629 with one taking Maine
(expanded in 1639) and the other New
Hampshire
• Massachusetts purchased Maine in 1677 and
New Hampshire became a royal colony in 1680
• In 1635, Reverend Thomas Hooker founded
Hartford and helped draft the Fundamental
Orders that governed the towns of Connecticut
valley in 1639
• By 1662 Connecticut had obtained a royal
charter
FRENCH & DUTCH SETTLEMENTS
• French explorers had
pushed up the St.
Lawrence as far as the
site of Montreal in the
1530s and beginning in
1603, Samuel Champlain
made several voyages to
the region, founding
Quebec in 1608
• French also established
colonies at St.
Christopher, Guadeloupe,
Martinique and other
islands in the West Indies
after 1625
FRENCH & DUTCH SETTLEMENTS
• Through their West India Company, the Dutch
also established themselves in the islands while
on the mainland they founded New Netherland
in the Hudson Valley after the 1609 explorations
of Henry Hudson
• As early as 1624 the Dutch established an
outpost at Fort Orange (present day Albany) and
two years later founded New Amsterdam at the
mouth of the Hudson River while Peter Minuit
(director general of the West India Company)
bought Manhattan Island from the Indians
FRENCH & DUTCH SETTLEMENTS
• Raided Spanish, traded
with the Indians, and
authorized large tracks
of land to anyone who
would bring over 50
settlers
• Removed from his post
in 1631, Peter Minuit
helped the Swedes
found New Sweden on
the lower reaches of the
Delaware River but after
years of conflict it was
overrun by the Dutch in
1655
MARYLAND & THE CAROLINAS
• After the 1630s, it was
increasingly easy to create
successful colonies (mostly
through royal charters) and many
were encouraged to do so as
prospects in England and Europe
worsened
• Proprietors obtained large land
grants and then granted land to
settlers for a small annual rent
while holding on to undeveloped
land for speculative purposes
MARYLAND
• Granted by Charles I to George Calvert, Lord
Baltimore, and a Catholic who wanted a haven for
his co-religionists
• First settlers arrived in 1634, founding St. Mary’s
which quickly turned to tobacco production similar to
nearby Jamestown
• The need to attract settlers meant Lord Baltimore
had to abandon his feudal privileges and allow
settlers to own their farms and have a say in local
affairs
• While Calvert had wanted a colony of Catholics
there was a large Protestant majority which resulted
in a Toleration Act in 1649 that guaranteed freedom
of religion to anyone who believed in Jesus Christ
CAROLINAS
• The proprietors of Carolina tried to exercise their granted
powers by drafting the Fundamental Constitutions which
created a hereditary nobility and a landed hierarchy that
proved unworkable
• The first settlers arrived in 1670, mostly from Barbados,
where slave labor was driving out small independent
farmers
• Charles Town (Charleston) was founded in 1680 while
another population center formed just south of Virginia in
Albemarle with settlers from predominantly from Virginia
• Charles Town engaged in a thriving trade in furs and the
export of foodstuffs to the West Indies while the
Albemarle settlement was poorer and more primitive
• The two separated in 1712, becoming North and South
Carolina
THE MIDDLE COLONIES
• English and Dutch trade rivalries resulted in King
Charles II granting his brother James, Duke of
York, the entire area between Connecticut and
Maryland (which included the Dutch colony of
New Netherland)
• In 1664 English forces captured New
Amsterdam and its population of 1500 without a
fight and the rest of the colonies soon followed
• Life remained much the same under English rule
as it had under Dutch, though a local assembly
was established in the 1680s
NEW JERSEY
• In 1664, the Duke of York gave New
Jersey (the region between the Hudson
and the Delaware) to John, Lord Berkeley,
and Sir George Carteret who offered land
on easy terms, established freedom of
religion, and a democratic system of local
government
• A considerable number of New England
and Long Island Puritans moved to the
colony
NEW JERSEY
• In 1674, Berkeley sold his interest to two
Quakers
• Quakers believed in the Inner Light (a direct
mystical experience of religious truth), refused to
take oaths, and were pacifists, which generally
made them unwelcome
• The Concessions and Agreements of 1677,
drafted for the new Quaker colony, created an
autonomous legislature and guaranteed settlers
freedom of conscience, the right to trial by jury,
and other civil rights
PENNSYLVANIA
• William Penn was responsible for the main
Quaker settlement when King Charles II
paid off his debt by giving Penn the region
north of Maryland and west of the
Delaware River in 1681
• In 1682, Penn founded Philadelphia in his
new colony of Pennsylvania which had
gained Delaware as a gift from the Duke of
York
PENNSYLVANIA
• Penn treated the Indians fairly and opened
settlement to anyone who believed in one God
• However, in government he was more
paternalistic and the assembly could only
approve or reject laws proposed by the governor
and council
• Penn promoted his colony tirelessly and
succeeded in attracting settlers including a large
number of Germans (Pennsylvania Dutch—
derived from deutsch)
• By 1685 there were almost 9,000 settlers and by
1700 there were twice that number
• The colony produced wheat, corn, rye and other
crops
EUROPEAN FOOTHOLDS
INDIANS & EUROPEANS as
“AMERICANIZERS”
• Interaction between Indians and Europeans was
typical of the settlement years
• Colonists learned a great deal from the Indians
– Names of plants and animals
– What to eat in their new home and how to catch or
grow it (especially corn)
– What to wear
– How to best get from one place to another (birchbark
canoes particularly helpful)
– How to fight
– In some respects, how to think
INDIANS & EUROPEANS as
“AMERICANIZERS”
• Indians adopted European technology,
particularly goods made of metal (thought
through 17th century bow remained more
effective than flintlock)
• Indians very active participants in fur trade
where each side profited: Indians traded
plentiful fur for valuable European objects
while Europeans gained valuable furs in
exchange for “cheap” European goods
FUR TRADE
• The fur trade shifted
Indian patterns
– Hunting parties
became larger
– Villages shifted nearer
trade routes and
European forts
– Some groups
combined into
confederations to
control larger hunting
territories
WEBSITES
• Vikings in the New World
http://www.anthro.mankato.msus.edu/prehistory/vikings/vik
home.html
• The Columbus Doors
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/columbus/coll.html
• 1492: An Ongoing Voyage
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/1492.exhibit/Intro.html
• The Computerized Information Retrieval System on
Columbus and the Age of Discovery
http://www.millersv.edu/~columbus
• Interacting with Native Americans in New Hampshire
http://seacostnh.com/history/contact/index.html
WEBSITES
• The Discoverers’ Web
http://www.win.tue.nl/cs/fm/engels/discovery
• The Plymouth Colony Archives Project at the University
of Virginia
http://www.people.virginia.edu/~jfd3a
• Jamestown Rediscovery
http://www.apva.org
• Jamestown
http://www.nps.gov/colo
• Williamsburg
http://www.history.org
• William Penn, Visionary Proprietor
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/PENN/pnhome.html