between-school effects: refer to inequalities among children who go to different schools
within-school effects: refers to differences among students in the same school, e.g., differences between students in
honors and remedial classes
cultural capital (411): (Pierre Bourdieu) refers to cultural qualities that are prized in the educational system as well as by
society overall. These qualities include the “right” language, access to books, and exposure to cultural forms
such as art, music, and theater.
emotion management / emotional labor (161-62): both refer to management of feeling to create a publicly observable
facial and bodily display. Emotion management becomes emotional labor when sold for a wage.
political opportunity structure (discussed in relation to labor unions): consistent but not necessarily formal or
permanent dimensions of the political environment that provide incentives for collective action by affecting
people's expectations for success or failure
second shift (26): women continue to bear the main responsibility for domestic tasks (the “second shift”), despite the
fact that more women are working in paid employment outside the home (the “first shift”) than ever before
sex: biological differences between men and women (contrast to gender)
single-parent families (209):
- gender typing (278-282): predominantly female occupations usually have lower status and pay
occupational sex segregation (278-282): concentration of men and women in different occupations. Women are
concentrated in the types of jobs that pay lower salaries, which is the principal cause of the gender pay gap.
gender (138): refers to cultural ideas, norms, and values that construct images and expectations of females and males,
particularly in terms of behavior and appearance. Socially and culturally constructed and understood.
– contrast to sex
- gendered division of labor (211): the differing ways that work and responsibility are divided up in the family
between husband and wife.
- gender gap (387): the difference between men’s and women’s labor-force participation
- gender-role conflicts
- gender schemas: tacit assumptions about men and women that unconsciously shape people’s perceptions of
others
- gender socialization: the learning of gender roles
middle America (259): the “one big middle class” that many Americans identify themselves as part of
life chances (242): opportunities for sharing in material or cultural goods during one’s lifetime.
social closure (245): occurs when a group monopolizes resources and excludes others from having access to them
social mobility (245): ability of individuals or groups to change their social position or status, either for better or for
worse, within a social hierarchy. Long-standing inequalities suggest that this is not the case.
social stratification (241): hierarchical ranking of people on the basis of social difference—specifically, with regard to
their access to desirable resources, their life chances, and their social influence.
consumer society (259): society whose inhabitants think of themselves more as consumers than as producers. (America)
prestige (244): the esteem, honor, or deference assigned to one’s social position.
exploitation (244): manipulation of one person or group by another for the latter’s own benefit and profit.
family relations
- as property relations: (Collins)
erotic property (rights over human bodies),
generational property (rights regarding children),
household property (rights over goods held or owned by the family)
- linked to changes in wider society: reflexivity, individualism, consumerism
- theoretical perspectives on: feminism (226), functionalism (211), Marxism
privatization (261): process by which people make the transition from identifying as part of a class or occupational
group to thinking of themselves as individuals
marriage squeeze (213): restricted supply of available partners that results when a woman chooses to delay marriage.
Cultural norms suggest woman shouldn’t marry younger men, and men have a tendency to marry women
several years younger than them women get caught in a squeeze
nuclear family: consists of a husband, wife, and the children who are their offspring. (natural, universal.)
vs. extended family (221): combines several generations and a variety of different kinship relations, as when
grandparents, aunts, or uncles live together with a traditional nuclear family.
step family: a family in which at least one partner has children from a previous marriage, living in the home or nearby
patriarchal (222): organization of a society or social system around the idea of male dominance, superiority, and power.
transformation of marriage (219): refers to postmodern efforts to denaturalize marriage and redefine the nature of the
marriage contract. (Movement in favor of gay marriage.)
unionism
- craft unionism: limits union membership to skilled workers engaged in a particular craft
- industrial unionism: combines all workers, skilled and unskilled, who are employed in a particular industry
- social movement unionism: links improvements in wages and working conditions to organizing other workers
and promoting economic equality in society
-Victorian “love revolution” (Collins)
denaturalization (219): process by which something assumed to be normal, universal and accepted is challenged or
modified and thus no longer seems obvious or natural. Example: marriage has long been defined as a
relationship between a man and a woman recognized by law however, the contemporary debates surrounding
gay marriage have challenged and denaturalized this definition.
stereotype (313): refers to fixed, cognitive preconceptions that are necessary for understanding modern society.
Facilitate and maintain a majority’s domination of the minority.
discrimination (313): behaviors based on cultural beliefs that stigmatize members of a minority group, harmfully impact
them, and reinforce their lower status in relation to the majority group.
race (301): biologically speaking, an arbitrary classification assigned on the basis of genetic characteristics. Sociologically
speaking, socially constructed cultural process.
nativism (308): ethnocentric attitude of a native-born population toward immigrants.
ethnocentrism (307): attitude based on a belief in the cultural superiority of one’s own ethnic group above all others.
ethnicity (301): group distinctiveness based on a common territory, history, and tradition.
racism (303): behavior based on the belief that a group is inferior because of inherited physical differences that are
inherently connected with behavioral differences.
Affirmative action: positive action to improve employment or educational opportunities for women or members of
minority groups
genocide (307): systematic mass murder of a group of people.
Jim Crow: laws that enforced racial segregation in the U.S. South between 1877 and the 1950s
apartheid: policy of racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-European groups in South
Africa until the 1990s
religion (460):
- Emile Durkheim's definition (460-61): religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices which unite into one
single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.
- individualism: essential religious attitude based on the consecration of the self
- social function, according to Durkheim (460): represent to believers the society of which they are members
and their relations with it, and to renew and reinvigorate social solidarity
- social origin, according to Durkheim:
sacred (460): refers to things set apart and forbidden. The opposite is the profane, everything not set apart and
forbidden.
rites: rules that prescribe how people must conduct themselves with sacred things
Protestant ethic (464): (Weber) belief that worldly successes stemming from individual responsibility and a compulsion
to save and invest are a sign of God’s favor. Absorbed into the general spirit of capitalism.
disenchantment (464): (Max Weber) process in which previously religious concepts, values, and ideals become detached
from their religious roots and secularized. Example: as modernity became increasingly rationalized and
capitalism developed the Protestant Ethic became separated from this early religious setting and its
enchantment was lost. Max Weber saw disenchantment as being the accomplice to rationalization and though
that it would inevitably lead to the decline of religion.
fundamentalism (474, 481-82): views society as a system composed of various interdependent parts, such as actors,
institutions, and the state. These parts have particular functions to serve within society and are assumed to
work together with a tendency toward stability. Example: a functionalist might describe the gendered division
of labor as a required role specialization whereby men work outside the home, thus supporting the economy,
and women remain at home, bearing responsibility for the socialization of children.
New Age (476): “self -spirituality.” Beliefs emphasize making conflict with the innate spirituality in people and shifting
from a contaminated, artificial sense of being to one representing pure and authentic nature.
religious economies model: the theory that religion thrives—even in modern societies—when religious organizations
compete freely for followers (also known as the rational choice theory of religion [469])
secularization (464): declining significance of religion in social institutions, culture, and individual experience.
1. Membership and attendance
2. Authority and social influence of religious organizations
3. Strength of religious beliefs and values
Secularization theory: religion continues to flourish in moderns societies in a variety of forms, including New Age
religion and religious fundamentalism
capitalist economic system (372): modern economic system in which people and organizations invest capital in the
production of goods and services to make profit. Workers invest their laborreceive wages. Owners keep costs
low make profit. Requires a frees market in which producers can compete with one another and freely enter
into contracts to buy or sell.
conflict over control in organizations (see 379)
comparable worth policies: adjust pay so that people who work in predominantly female occupations are not penalized
craft workers (376): employees who combine an intense pride in their work with a broad knowledge of tools, materials,
and processes as well as manual skills acquired by long training and experience.
Fordism (378): a manufacturing system based on mass production and consumption of cheap, standardized goods.
Post-Fordism involves more “flexible” production and labor arrangements (390-91).
free agent (385): individual who doesn’t seek jobs, rather, is on the lookout for projects, new knowledge and
information, and connectedness through internet. Have project contracts, not jobs.
division of labor (369): specialization of tasks required to produce goods. Culmination occurred at original Ford plant.
professionals (374): workers characterized by control of a large body of abstract, formal knowledge, substantial
autonomy from supervision, authority over clients as well as subordinate occupational groups, and the claim
that they will use their knowledge for the benefit of their clients, putting clients’ interests first.
service economy (373): devoted to supplying services such as information processing, teaching, nursing, advertising,
marketing, or food.
outsourcing (383): process by which coroporations and businesses send work to off-site contractors in order to avoid
paying high wages or providing expensive benefits.
industrial economy (373): characterized by the employment of large numbers of workers in the mass production of
manufactured goods. (conveyor-belt-driven assembly lines at factories)
de-industrialization (387): systematic deinvestment in a nation’s manufacturing infrastructure
scientific management (also known as Taylorism) (378): one best way to perform every task, and this could be
discovered by observing workers and then developing more efficient means of doing work.