RELIGION
Haralambos, Michael et al. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives (Seventh
Edition). HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. London (2008).
Mustapha, Nasser. Sociology for Caribbean Students (Second Edition). Ian
Randle Publishers. Jamaica (2013).
DEFINING RELIGION

Durkheim (1915) described it saying that it consists of
“things that surpass the limits of our knowledge.” He
went on to say that religion is “a unified system of beliefs
and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say set
apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite
into one single moral community, called a church, all
those who adhere to them”.

Yinger (1995) defined religion as ‘a system of beliefs and
practices by means of which a group of people struggles
with the ultimate problems of human life.”
Features of Religion

Tischler (2002), states that all religions share a common set of elements such
as prayer and ritual, belief and organization:
1.
Rituals consist of repeated formalized social behaviours that communicate
sacred symbolic meaning to it’s members. (Scupin, 2006)
2.
Prayer serves as a medium of communication with unknown forces and the
supernatural.
3.
Belief is the acceptance of explanations that religion seeks to provide.
4.
Organization serves to foster and solidify the relationship between members
of the religion as well as a way of promoting the religion to the wider
community.
Types of Religion

Tischer (2002) suggests that religion is often classified into four types:
1.
Supernaturalism – implies the existence of supernatural forces that
can influence human behaviour as well as animate and inanimate
objects.
2.
Animism – is the belief that spirits and ghosts coexist in the world
with human beings. These spirits can be good or evil and inhabit
animate and inanimate beings.
3.
Theism – the belief in the existence of gods and goddesses who can
influence human behaviour.
4.
Abstract ideals – the focus on correct thinking and behaviour that
facilitate the achievement of specific goals. E.g. Buddhism.
Forms of Religious Organization
Many members of society express religious beliefs through
organizations and these same organizations tend to shape
those beliefs. The following are the types of religious
organizations:
1. CHURCH
2. DENOMINATION
3. SECT
4. CULT
Typology of Religious Organizations
Respectable
Deviant
Uniquely Legitimate
CHURCH
SECT
Pluralistically Legitimate
DENOMINATION
CULT
1. Church

Tend to be large with inclusive membership.

Usually supported by the status quo.

Is well established with a bureaucratic structure
and hierarchical ordering of positions.

Has its affairs managed by a trained clergy and
other paid officials.
2. Denomination

Has formal bureaucratic and hierarchical
structures.

Is usually large and has established facilities.

Constitutes a predominantly middle-class
membership.

Does not have a universal appeal in society.

Appears as a ‘watered-down’ church.
3. Sect





Has a small and exclusive membership.
Is usually formed as a result of a split from a major
church and is usually at odds with society.
Claims religious legitimacy but has a negative
relationship with other institutions in society.
Is fundamentalist and usually subscribe to a literal
interpretation of scriptures.
Has no formal organization and is usually short lived.
However, it can sometimes grow in size to become a
denomination.
4. Cult

Usually led by a charismatic leader and introduces a ‘new’
religion in society.

Rejects the norms and institutions of larger society for a purer
form.

Has a few coherent doctrines and focuses on personal benefits.

Usually appeals to the lower socio-economic groups in society.

May incorporate the use of astrology, black magic or
transcendental meditation.

If successful, can become a sect or new church within society.
Functionalism on Religion

Durkheim argued that all societies divide the world into two categories: the
‘sacred’ and the ‘profane’ (the non-scared). Religion is based on this
division.

He believed that social life was impossible without the shared values and
moral beliefs that form the ‘collective conscience’. In their absence, there
would be no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In
short, there would be no society. Religion reinforces this collective
conscience.

The worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs that form the
basis of social life. By defining them as sacred, religion provides them with
greater power to direct human action.

He added that ‘collective worship’ was important in that it allowed members
of society to express, communicate and understand the moral fabric that
binds them.
Functionalism on Religion (ctd.)

Malinowski discusses ‘rituals’ as religious practices that can
either produce anxiety or reduce anxiety by providing
confidence or a feeling of control when dealing with situations
of stress.

Parsons (1965) believed religion to provide guidelines for human
action and standards against which people’s conduct can be
evaluated. E.g The Ten Commandments in Christian society.

Parsons goes on to see the major function of religion as the
provision of meaning to events that people do not expect, or
feel ought not to happen – events that are frustrating and
contradictory. Religion ‘makes sense’ of these events in terms
of an integrated and consistent pattern of meaning which
ultimately promotes order and social stability.
Criticisms of Functionalist Perspective

Durkheim’s sample was unrepresentative of the larger population
about which he generalizes.

Others agree of religion’s importance to society but disagree in his
definition of it being the worship of society.

Hamilton (1995) puts forward that “the emergence of religious
pluralism and diversity within a society is, of course, something that
Durkheim’s theory had great difficulty dealing with.”

Durkheim overstates the extent to which the collective conscience
permeates and shapes the behaviour of individuals. Some religious
beliefs can be at odds with and override societal values. Hamilton
(1995) states that the fact that our moral sense might make us go
against the majority, the society, or authority, shows that we are not
quite so dependent upon or society as Durkheim states.
Marxism on Religion

Marx (1963) contends that “religion is the sigh of the oppressed
creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless
conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

It is both “an expression of real suffering and a protest against
suffering,” but it does little to solve the problem because it helps to
make life more bearable and therefore dilutes demands for change.

As such, religion merely stupefies its adherents rather than bringing
them true happiness and fulfilment.

Lenin argues that “religion is a kind of spiritual gin in which the slaves
of capital drown their human shape and their claims to any decent
life.”
Marxism on Religion (ctd.)

Marxists believe that religion can dull the pain of oppression in the
following ways:
1.
It promises a paradise of eternal bliss in life after death.
2.
Some religions make a virtue of the suffering produced by
oppression.
3.
Religion can offer hope of supernatural intervention to solve
problems on earth.
4.
Religion often justifies the social order and a person’s position within
it. In this way, social arrangements appear inevitable.
Marxism on Religion (ctd.)

Marx also believed that religion didn’t only cushion the effects of
oppression, it was also an instrument of that oppression.

Religion acts as a ‘mechanism of social control’ in that it maintains
the existing system of exploitation and reinforcing class relationships.

Religion also helps to produce a ‘false class consciousness’ which
blinds members of the subject class to their true situation and their
real interests and therefore perpetuates the ruling-class power.

Marx (1957) concluded that “religion is only the illusory sun which
revolves around man as long as he does not revolve around himself.”

In a truly socialist society, individuals revolve around themselves and
religion disappears.
Criticisms of Marxist Perspective

Critics argue that religion doesn’t always legitimize power
and can sometimes provide the impetus for change.

Marx does not explain the existence of religion apart from
saying that it was an ideological force – stating a utility of
religion does not define or explain it.

When USSR (Russia) became communists after 1917,
religion did not disappear as Marx anticipated. Rather, 47
percent of the Russian population claimed to believe in
God.
Weberians on Religion

Weber’s ‘social action theory’ argues that human action is directed
by meanings and motives. From this perspective, action can only be
understood by appreciating the ‘worldview’ – the image or picture of
the world held by members of society.

Religion is often seen as an important component of a worldview. In
certain places, religion can direct action in a wide range of contexts.

In his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber
examines the relationship between Protestantism and the
development of Western industrial capitalism.

He tried to show that capitalism developed initially in areas where
this religion was influential – China lacked a religion that encouraged
and facilitated the development of capitalism.
The Protestant Ethic

This enabled Calvinists to convince themselves that they were
developed in the 17th century.

The ethic was ‘ascetic’ in that it encouraged abstinence from life’s
pleasures, an austere life and rigorous self-discipline.

It produced individuals who worked hard in their careers or ‘callings’.

Making money was a concrete indication of success is one’s calling and
success in one’s calling meant that the individual had not lost grace in
God’s sight.

These riches could not be spent on luxuries, fine clothes, lavish
houses and frivolous entertainment, but in the glory of God.

This meant becoming even more successful as it involved reinvesting
profits in the business.
Criticisms of Weberian Perspective

Sombart (1907) argued that Calvinism was actually against greed and
the pursuit of money for its own sake.

There were parts of the world where Calvinism was strong but
capitalism did not develop until much later.

Kautsy (1953) argues that early capitalism preceded and largely
determined Protestantism. He saw Calvinism as having developed in
cities where commerce and early forms of industrialization were
already established.

Critics argue that Calvinists didn’t become businesses people for
religious reasons. Rather, they did so because they were excluded
from holding public office and joining certain professions by law.
Feminists on Religion

Unlike Marxists, tend to see religion as a product of patriarchy rather
than as a product of capitalism.

Armstrong (1993) contends that “none of the major religions have
been particularly good to women. They have usually become male
affairs and women have been relegated to a marginal position.”

Women tend to be excluded from key roles in many religions despite
the fact that women often participate more in organized religion
(when they are allowed to) than men.

Women were not always subordinate in most religions, however, the
status of women in religion declined with time.

Women’s second-class status is often related to their sexuality –
menstruation and childbirth are seen as ‘polluting’.
Criticisms of Feminist Perspective

Badawi (1994) notes that there are certain aspects of
Islam are positive for women. E.g. Islamic women keep
their family name when they are married.

Women have been found to occupy higher positions within
religious organizations.

It should not be assumed that all religions are, and have
been, equally oppressive to women.

Furthermore, oppressive practices may be open to varied
interpretations. E.g. the veiling of Islamic women.