Introduction to Classical Mythology and Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
Discussion Guide 1
I. What is meant by “classical mythology”?
A. “Classical” in this context refers to the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome
1. Ancient Greece’s culture’s highpoint—Athens, 5th century BCE
2. Roman culture reached its zenith, 1st centuries BCE and CE
3. Shared the bulk of their mythology
B. “Mythology” is an ambiguous term
1. “-ology” ending “the study of”— “the study of myth”
2. “Mythology” used to mean “a culture’s body of myths”
II. “Myth” is a notoriously difficult concept to define—working definition
A. Myths are traditional stories a society tells itself that encode or represent
the world-view, beliefs, principles, and fears of that society
B. Many scholars subdivide traditional tales into three categories: myth,
legend, and folktale
1. Myth: stories that concern gods and religious ritual
2. Legends: traditional stories rooted in historical fact
3. Folktale: entertaining, didactic stories (Fairytales live here)
III. If myths are traditional tales that a society tells itself about itself, which
societies use myth, and why?
A. All societies have myths—most important in preliterate cultures
1. Literate cultures: written forms explaining phenomenon and concepts
2. Preliterate cultures: WOM myths explain physical/metaphysical universe
B. This idea is important for the question of what myth really means
1. Modern culture distinguishes fact/fiction, true/false, actual/imaginary
2. When myth is the only available form of explanation—distinctions blur
3. For example, Gaia (Earth) and Ouranos (Sky) anthropomorphized
deities, also physical “realities”—modern distinction between metaphorical
and literal doesn’t apply—Greeks considered religion, not myth
Discussion Guide 2
I. Most complete surviving Greek account of the creation of the universe
Hesiod’s Theogony (many versions of creation myths, surely you know others)
A. Hesiod probably composed the poem sometime in the eighth century BC (circa
time of the Iliad)
B. As Iliad/Odyssey, Theogony transcription of orally transmitted material
C. Hesiod shapes traditional WOM material—doesn’t create the stories
D. Theogony never an orthodoxy or a “sacred text” like the Bible or Qur’an
II. Theogony describes how material universe came to be and birth of the gods
A. Gods not separate from the universe—a deity is a natural force/element
and an anthropomorphic entity with volition, emotion, bodily functions
B. This creation story reveals much about the nature of the gods
1. Gods do not create universe; they are part of it—gods not omnipotent
2. No external creator exists outside and beyond the universe itself—gods
not transcendent
3. Gods are immortal for at least so long as the universe lasts
4. Gods highly anthropomorphic: they eat, drink, sleep, mate, feel emotions
III. Theogony posits several primordial entities: Chaos, Gaia, Tartaros, and Eros.
A. “Chaos” in ancient Greek meant a gap or yawning, not a state of
disorder—she came first
B. Gaia is the earth, first natural entity to exist in Hesiod’s geocentric universe
C. Tartaros is the Underworld eventually inhabited by souls of dead humans
D. Eros means “sexual desire”—creation through sexual reproduction
IV. After the primordial deities, birth and sexual reproduction become the
standard means of reproduction
A. Chaos gives birth to Night/Erebos, who mate producing Ether/Day
B. Gaia gives birth to Ouranos (Sky), Pontos (Sea), and Mountains—natural
world begins to take recognizable shape (the landscape was the “known world”)
V. Gaia mates with Ouranos and eventually produces twelve children, the Titans
A. Ouranos does not allow the children to be born—trapped in Gaia’s womb
B. With the help of her youngest son, Cronos, Gaia disables Ouranos
1. From inside his mother’s body, Cronos castrates his father
2. Cronos throws the severed genitals into Pontos; Aphrodite is born from
foam that springs up around them (a little different from Botticelli’s version?)
3. Ouranos retreats from Gaia, becomes the dome of the sky, leaves room
for children to be born and to develop
C. This story shows how myth can work on several levels at once
1. Gaia=Earth and Ouranos=Sky; Gaia also a female entity with a womb
2. Sky pressing down on Earth, no space for anything to develop between
VI. Pattern repeated next generation: Cronos tries to prevent birth of his children
A. Cronos mates w/ sister Rheia—produce six children: Hestia, Demeter, Hera,
Hades, Poseidon, Zeus
1. Cronos does not leave his children in mother’s body—under her control
2. Cronos swallows each child (except the last, Zeus) as it is born
3. Rheia tricks Crono—feeds him a stone in a blanket in place of Zeus
4. Zeus sent to Crete, reared in secret—returns to overthrow his father
B. Zeus induces Cronos to spit out the children in reverse order
1. Zeus is both the youngest and the oldest of his siblings
2. Zeus, his five siblings, several of his children, the Olympians
3.10 yr war: Titans (Cronos) and Olympians (Zeus)—Olympian’s triumph
VII. Struggle for power forms a pattern: older female deities opposed by older
male deities and helped by younger male deities
A. Many scholars argue that this reflects the psychological anxieties of
males about their parents’ sexuality, about displacing their fathers, and
about having to hand power over to their sons in turn
B. Others see the increased anthropomorphism of each generation and the
decreased identification of gods and natural forces as representing the
development of civilization
C. Others point to the apparent anxiety in Greek culture about the power of
women, the fear that women would exert control if they could
Discussion Guide 3
I. After overthrowing the Titans, Zeus consolidated his power and became the
primary ruler of the gods
A. No further struggles of sons to overthrow their fathers—no further shift of
power down the generations
B. Zeus divides power among himself and his brothers, Hades and
Poseidon—the “triple division” in theory equal, in reality NOT equal
1. Hades: ruler of Tartaros—(eventually) lord of souls of the dead
2. Poseidon: ruler of the sea and waters in general
3. Zeus: ruler of the sky (in practice, over the earth too)
C. Zeus’s sisters also have their particular roles/domains
1. Hera: patron goddess of marriage (ugh…ironic)
2. Hestia: goddess of the hearth (important, not to be overlooked)
3. Demeter: goddess of grain and agriculture
II. Zeus’s domain includes abstract concepts concerning order of human society
A. Zeus oversees Justice—patron of oaths, punishes oath-breakers (ironic!)
B. God of xenia, important concept usually translated as the “guest-host
relationship” (fall of Greece?)
C. He oversees prophecy, particularly at his shrine at Dodona
1. Apollo also god of prophecy, but derives his control of prophecy from Zeus
2. Prophets often say that they foretell “the will of Zeus”
III. Established as ruler, Zeus marries his first wife, the minor goddess Metis
A. Metis fated to bear a son who will overthrow his father, repeating pattern
B. On the advice of Gaia and Ouranos, Zeus swallows Metis
1. Metis pregnant with Athena, eventually born from Zeus’s head
2. Son who fated to overthrow his father never conceived or born
3. One of few times anyone successfully circumvents fate
IV. Myth of Metis and Athena offers several interesting interpretative points
A. Fate affects gods as well as humans—reminder Zeus is not omnipotent
B. Swallowing of Metis moment male gods assert power over goddesses
V. Zeus mates with other goddesses and produces several children before
marrying his permanent wife, Hera (but the marriage did not stop him)
A. Hera has difficulties producing acceptable sons with Zeus
1. They have two daughters, Hebe (“Bloom of Youth”), goddess of women
at marriageable age (13) and Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth
2. Zeus and Hera produce only one son, Ares, the god of war
3. Hera’s other son, Hephaistos, born parthenogenically, because of
Hera’s jealousy over Athena
B. Zeus mates with mortal women (Leda) (Alcmene, mother of Heracles)
1. Hera is particularly disposed to hate Zeus’s sons by mortal women
2. This hatred is a motivating force behind Heracles’s adventures
VI. Zeus’s amatory exploits are not just a matter of a god behaving badly
A. Many of Zeus’s matings are with “conceptual” gods—Themis (“right
order”) produces offspring, Justice
B. Reflect synthesis of various local gods and traditions—syncretism
VII. By the end of Theogony, what sort of picture of the gods do we have?
A. Gods anthropomorphic, sharing many of humanity’s characteristics
1. Have bodies, larger and more beautiful than human bodies
2. Eat (ambrosia), drink (nectar), a substance (ichor) flowing through veins
3. They share human emotions and passions, both good and bad
B. The gods are also very different from humans
1. Ability to move vast distances and appear before humans at will
2. Ability to disguise themselves as other creatures/non-animate objects
C. Defining difference between humans and gods—gods are immortal,
humans are mortal—humans must die, gods cannot die
Discussion Guide 4
I. Theogony concentrates on the coming-into-being of the gods; it does not
contain a creation story for humans at all
A. Describes how gods developed their society—humans largely irrelevant
B. Humans mentioned in Theogony, but a human creation story is absent
C. Men appear in Theogony at the first animal sacrifice (establishes ritual)
II. Prometheus tricks Zeus into taking the less desirable portion of the first
sacrifice and gives men get the better portion (ritual sacrifice makes sense!)
A. Zeus’s retaliates against Prometheus’s—hides fire from man
1. Zeus (Justice?) ironically punishes man for Prometheus’s transgressions
2. Gods do not love humans or feel compelled to treat them fairly
3. Zeus supervises justice between humans—not between gods and humans
B. Prometheus steals the fire back for man, further punishment
1. Prometheus is chained to a pillar to have his liver eaten daily (liver
regenerates) by an eagle, Zeus’s sacred bird
2. Men punished by the creation of the first woman, Pandora
C. The Prometheus story highlights problems of studying myth through literature
1. Zeus seems to have a particular grudge against Prometheus’s entire
family—Greeks would have known why, we’re not sure
2. According to some later authors, Prometheus created humans, but Hesiod
does not say so—many “local” versions of myths
III. Prometheus’s story is very important
A. Fire equals civilization, or “culture”
B. Prometheus brings men (as opposed to men and women!) culture
C. Sacrifice represents the transition from precivilization to civilization
IV. In Works and Days the emphasis is on Pandora
A. The name Pandora is ambiguous; it may mean “gift of all” or “all-giver”
B. In Works and Days, Pandora’s creation described in more detail
C. She is sent to Prometheus’s brother Epimetheus
D. She has a jar that contains all the evils of the world, as well as Hope
(when opened, evils fly out, Hope remains just under the lid)
V. Pandora’s story is often compared to that of the biblical Eve
A. Pandora and Eve responsible for the advent of evil into the world
B. Eve is “good” in the beginning and created out of Adam’s body—Pandora
is “evil” from her inception and a different type of creature—a different species!
VI. Presence of Hope in Pandora’s jar is both striking and difficult to interpret
A. Common modern interpretation: however bad things get, we still have hope
1. Hope is still in the jar, not out in the world the way the evils are
2. If Hope is a “good,” why is it in the jar of evils to begin with?
B. Cynics say Hope’s retention in the jar indicates that there is no Hope
C. Word translated as Hope, elpis, is ambiguous, more like expectation
VII. The myth of Pandora lends itself to psychological interpretations
A. The jar can be read as representing Pandora’s womb
1. Pandora and all women are responsible for evil by virtue of giving birth
2. Birth inflicts all the evils of life on the one born—also the only hope for
continuity (immortality, of sorts) available to humans
3. Thus, the jar/womb contains both evil and hope
B. Reflecting male anxieties about and resentments of sexual reproduction
1. Patriarchal society—all-important for men to have sons
2. The only way to achieve sons is through women
3. Women, then control men’s ultimate destiny
4. The jar under Pandora’s control—fear/resentment of female power
VIII. At this point, we need to pull together several threads and consider the
overall relationship of gods and humans
A. The term “god” is regularly used to translate the Greek theos—for
modern readers, connotations lead to serious misconceptions
1. Modern Western readers tend to assume that a god must by definition
be good, merciful, and just
2. A god must by definition be omniscient and omnipotent
3. A god creates the universe and feels love toward human beings
4. Despite anthropomorphic language, most modern Western readers
don’t think god really have a body or human-like appetites and passions
B. Assumptions are false for the gods of classical mythology
1. Anthropomorphism means these gods can be jealous, spiteful, cruel
2. Know a lot, not omniscient; very powerful, not omnipotent
3. Not transcendent—they did not create the universe but are part of it
4. Not humanity’s loving caretakers; don’t care about the species at large, and
rarely care about individuals
C. Personifications of natural forces, emotions, or processe—explains
emotional detachment from humans and mercilessness
Discussion Guide 5
I. Myth of Demeter, Persephone, and Hades is in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter
A. Homeric Hymns are a series of poems honoring various gods
B. Hymn to Demeter deals with questions of gender roles, marriage customs,
the relative power of different deities, and human mortality
C. Myth transparently aetiological provides an explanation of the seasons
II. The basic story of the abduction of Persephone by Hades is fairly simple
A. Demeter, goddess of grain and agriculture, mated with Zeus (her brother)
and produced a daughter, Persephone
B. With Zeus’s permission, Hades (Zeus’s and Demeter’s brother) seized
Persephone (his niece) took her to the Underworld to be his wife
C. Demeter, searching for Persephone, stopping briefly in Eleusis
D. Demeter caused a famine by refusing to let grain grow until Zeus ordered
Hades to return Persephone that humankind wouldn’t starve to death.
1. Persephone had eaten a pomegranate seed while she was in Tartaros,
so she could not leave Hades permanently (inappropriate eating)
2. Persephone spends 1/3 of the yr in Hades and 2/3 on Olympus
III. Window onto many aspects of ancient Greek (or at least Athenian) life
A. First, the story reflects marriage practices
1. A marriage was a contract between the husband and the bride’s father
2. Marriage of only daughter with no brothers to uncle common (epikleros)
3. Human marriages were patrilocal
4. Marriage restricted contact between human mothers and daughters
B. The story reflects the human experience of death and separation
1. Olympians can’t or don’t go to Tartaros (Hades and Hermes exceptions)
2. Demeter’s anguish close to what a human feels at a loved one’s death
3. Only time a god or goddess feels this sort of mourning for another deity
4. Connection death/marriage Greek literature (maternal mortality)
C. Story paints picture of gods’ attitude toward and relationship with humans
1. Humans are useful to the gods but are not objects of affection
2. Zeus does not persuade Demeter to lift the famine because he loves
humans, because humans are innocent—needs human’s sacrificial offerings
IV. Story of Demeter’s visit to Metaneira, the queen of Eleusis
A. Disguised as an old woman meets Metaneira’s daughters
B. She offers to be a nanny to their baby brother, Demophoön
1. Demophoön a “late-born and much desired son” extremely precious
2. Infant mortality was high; old women with experience in demand
C. Each night, Demeter anoints Demophoön with ambrosia and lays him in
the fire to make him immortal
1. Metaneira catches the old woman, is horrified and cries out in anguish
2. Demeter throws the child to the ground and abandons the project
D. Apollodorus and other authors say that Demophoön died
V. Demophoön story offers a window into the nature of the gods it describes and
the society that created them
A. Demeter seems to be using Demophoön as a Persephone-substitute—
noteworthy that she picks a male child
1. Demeter follows pattern ofGaia and Rheia—enlisting the help of an
infant male son against oppressive adult father
2. A male child will not be taken away from her through marriage
3. Demeter’s attempt does not work—universe under Zeus is fixed—where
Gaia and Rheia could succeed, Demeter fails
B. By trying to immortalize a human child, Demeter is not only providing a
substitute child for herself; she is also redressing the balance against Hades
C. Gods’ unconcern with human emotion and their tendency to see humans
as useful, rather than as objects of affection
1. Demeter does not seem to realize that if she succeeds, she will inflict
the same anguish on Metaneira as Zeus inflicted on her
2. Demeter has no further interest in Demophoön
3. Once the immortalization process has been interrupted, it is over
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
Imagine prisoners who have been chained since childhood deep inside a
cave. Not only are their limbs immobilized by the chains; their heads are chained
as well so that their eyes are fixed on a wall.
Behind the prisoners is an enormous fire, and between the fire and the
prisoners is a raised walkway, along which shapes of various animals, plants,
and other things are carried. The shapes cast shadows on the wall, which
occupy the prisoners' attention. When one of the shape-carriers speaks, an echo
against the wall causes the prisoners to believe that the words come from the
shadows.
The prisoners engage in what appears to us to be a game - naming the
shapes as they come by. This, however, is the only reality that they know, even
though they are seeing merely shadows of images.
Suppose a prisoner is released and compelled to stand up and turn around.
His eyes will be blinded by the firelight, and the shapes passing will appear
less real than their shadows.
Similarly, if he is dragged up out of the cave into the sunlight, his eyes will be
so blinded that he will not be able to see anything.
At first, he will be able to see darker shapes such as shadows and, only later,
brighter and brighter objects.
The last object he would be able to see is the sun, which, in time, he would
learn to see as that object which provides the seasons and the courses of the
year, presides over all things in the visible region, and is in some way the cause
of all these things that he has seen.
Once enlightened, so to speak, the freed prisoner would no doubt want to
return to the cave to free "his fellow bondsmen". The problem, however, lies in
the other prisoners' not wanting to be freed: descending back into the cave
would require that the freed prisoner's eyes adjust again, and for a time, he
would be one of the identifying shapes on the wall. This would make his fellow
prisoners murderous toward anyone who attempted to free them.
(The Republic bk. VII, 516 B.C; trans. Paul Shorey)