A Chronology of the Algerian War of
Independence
• May 8, 1945. While France celebrates VE Day, Muslim protesters in Sétif organize to demand Algerian
independence. What begins as a march becomes a massacre: the protesters murder more than 100
European settlers, or pieds-noirs, and French armed forces retaliate by killing (according to various
estimates) between 1,000 and 45,000 Muslims.
• November 1, 1954. Emboldened by the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the Front de Libération Nationale
(FLN) launches armed revolts throughout Algeria and issues a proclamation calling for a sovereign Algerian
state. The French are unimpressed but deploy troops to monitor the situation.
• August 1955. The FLN begins targeting civilians, inciting a mob that kills more than 120 people in
Philippeville. Between 1,200 and 12,000 Muslims are killed in retaliation by French troops and by piednoir “vigilante committees.” Jacques Soustelle, then governor-general of French Algeria, resolves not to
compromise with the revolutionaries.
• September 30, 1956. The FLN attempts to draw international attention to the conflict by targeting urban
areas. The Battle of Algiers begins when three women plant bombs in public venues. Algiers erupts into
violence.
• May 1958. A mob of pieds-noirs, angered by the French government’s failure to suppress the revolution,
storms the offices of the governor-general in Algiers. With the support of French army officers, they
clamor for Charles de Gaulle to be installed as the leader of France. The French National Assembly
approves. De Gaulle is greeted in Algeria by Muslims and Europeans alike.
• September 1959. Increasingly convinced that French control of Algeria is untenable, de
Gaulle pronounces that “self-determination” is necessary for Algeria. Pied-noir extremists are
aghast. The FLN is wary of de Gaulle’s declaration.
• April 1961. A few prominent generals in the French army in Algeria, clinging to a hope of
preserving Algérie française, attempt to overthrow de Gaulle. This “generals’ putsch” is
unsuccessful.
• May 1961. The first round of negotiations between the French government and the FLN
commences in Evian, but is not productive.
• March 1962. After a second round of negotiations in Evian, the French government declares a
cease-fire.
• March–June 1962. Despairing pieds-noirs in the Organisation de l’Armée Secrète (OAS) mount
terrorist attacks against civilians (Muslim and French). The FLN and the OAS ultimately
conclude a truce.
• July 1, 1962. A referendum is held in Algeria to approve the Evian Agreements, which call for
an Algérie algérienne. Six million Algerians cast their ballots for independence.
Immigration:France and
Britain
• 2011: How did France become a multi-racial country and how did
race relations develop there in the 1980s?
• 2010: Which country managed race relations better, Britain or
France? Argue your case, referring to both.
• 2009: To what extent did race become a major issue in Britain
and/or France?
• 2007: What problems and opportunities did cultural diversity
present to British society between 1960 and 1990?
• 2006: How did race relations become a major issue in Britain
and/or France in the period, 1945-1990?
Playing the race card
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMa1Zht0934
Acts
• 1947 British Nationality Act: all people in the British
Commonwealth were citizens
• 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act: only people with work
permits could come to Britain
• 1965 Race Relations Act: outlawed discrimination in employment
and housing in order to look after the immigrants already living in
the UK
• http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-censusanalysis/immigration-patterns-and-characteristics-of-non-uk-bornpopulation-groups-in-england-and-wales/non-uk-born-censuspopulations-1951---2011---full-infographic.html
1946-48
• At the end of the Second World War there were work shortages in Europe and labour shortages in Britain.
The government began looking for immigrants.
• Some 157,000 Poles were the first groups to be allowed to settle in the UK, partly because of ties made
during the war years. They were joined by Italians but it was not enough to meet the need.
• Many men from the West Indies had fought for the "mother country" but returned to civilian life with few
opportunities.
• Their sense of patriotism, coupled with the need to find work, steered them towards the UK.
• Despite an apparent official reluctance to allow immigration from the fast-disappearing empire, the
government could not recruit enough people from Europe and turned to these men.
• On 22 June 1948, the Empire Windrush docked at Tilbury in London, delivering hundreds of men from the
West Indies.
• Many had returned to rejoin the RAF. Others had been encouraged by adverts for work.
• The day marked what would become a massive change to British society - the start of mass immigration to
the UK and the arrival of different cultures.
An excerpt from part one of Playing The Race
Card, focusing on racial discrimination newly
migrant communities faced during the late 1950s.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwHPKaVw1SA
Arrival of newly migrant Afro-Caribbean and South
Asian communities into the UK during the early
1960s.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVcWVjNOCFA
1950-71
• As mass immigration continued in the 1950s, so did the rise of racial violence and prejudice. Many areas
including Birmingham, Nottingham and west London experienced rioting as white people feared the arrival
of a black community.
• On one hand, these men and women had been offered work in a country they had been brought up to
devote and honor. On the other, many were experiencing racial prejudice they had never expected.
• Legislation had allowed people from the Empire and Commonwealth unhindered rights to enter Britain
because they carried a British passport. (British Nationality Act 1947)
• Under political pressure, the government legislated three times in less than a decade to make immigration
for non-white people harder and harder. By 1972, legislation meant that a British passport holder born
overseas could only settle in Britain if they, firstly, had a work permit and, secondly, could prove that a
parent or grandparent had been born in the UK. (Commonwealth Immigration Acts 1962/1968 and 1971)
• In practice, this meant children born to white families in the remnants of Empire or the former colonies
could enter Britain. Their black counterparts could not.
• While government was tightening the entry rules, racial tension meant it had to try to tackle prejudice
and two race relations acts followed.
• In 1945, Britain's non-white residents numbered in the low thousands. By 1970 they numbered
approximately 1.4 million - a third of these children born in the United Kingdom.
1972-79
• The government had greatly restricted immigration by the 1970s, but
had not stopped it altogether. Some 83,000 immigrants from the
Commonwealth settled in the UK between 1968 and 1975, largely
through gaining work permits or obtaining permission to join relatives.
• The most significant immigration of the decade came in 1972 when the
Ugandan dictator General Idi Amin expelled 80,000 African Asians from
the country, families who had been encouraged to settle there during
the days of Empire. Many held British passports and, amid a major crisis,
the UK admitted 28,000 in two months.
• In 1976 the government established the Commission for Racial Equality,
the statutory body charged with tackling racial discrimination.
• In 1978 Viv Anderson became the first black footballer to be selected for
the full England team and went on to win 30 caps.
An excerpt from part two of Playing The Race
Card, looking at the mass migration of Ugandan
Indians into the UK during the early 1970s.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrY-vl8_Vak
• An excerpt from part two of Playing The Race Card, looking at UK
immigration control policies during the 1970s and its impact on
the lives of South Asian migrants.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uo3fcooY6lU
1980s
• By the 1980s Britain's immigration policy had two prongs. Firstly, there were strict controls on
entry.
• Secondly, the state said it would protect the rights of ethnic minorities. Critics suggested that
the two prongs gave conflicting signals on the place of the immigrant communities - and their
British-born children - in society. As manufacturing declined, work permits were harder to get
unless you had specialist skills or professional trading.
• This meant that the largest immigrant groups were Americans (to banking and industry),
Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans making use of family-ties entry rules, and
South Asian men and women entering the medical professions.
• The riots of 1981 were largely sparked by racial issues. In Brixton, the spiritual home of
Britain's afro-Caribbean community, youths rioted amid resentment that the police were
targeting more and more young black men in the belief that it would stop street crime.
Similar riots followed in Liverpool and the Midlands. The subsequent Scarman Report found
that "racial disadvantage is a fact of current British life".
1987-2002
•
On 11 June 1987, the face of British politics changed when four non-white politicians were elected at the same General
Election. Today there are over 20 MPs from various ethnic minorities. Campaigners say that equal representation would
require at least 55 black MPs in the House of Commons.
•
The inquiry into the police's handling of the 1993 murder of black teenager Stephen Lawrence led directly to new antidiscrimination legislation passed in 2000.
•
http://www.stephenlawrence.org.uk/about-us/stephens-story/
•
In the years following the fall of the Iron Curtain, a new movement of people began, some fleeing political persecution,
others seeking a better life in western Europe.
•
The growth of asylum seeker applications contributed to a new growth of immigration to the UK. Between 1998 and 2000,
some 45,000 people arrived from Africa, 22,700 from the Indian sub-continent, 25,000 from Asia and almost 12,000 from
the Americas. Some 125,000 people were allowed to settle in the UK in 2000.
•
But the rise in asylum seeker arrivals has seen a rise in racial tensions.
•
In May 2002 the far-right British National Party won three local council seats, a year after racial tensions and were blamed
for riots in northern towns. The government's plans for a new nationality and immigration legislation, including a possible
citizenship test, sparked new controversy.
•
Fifty years after the start of mass immigration to the UK, questions are still being asked about whether or not the UK can
become a multi-ethnic society at ease with itself - or whether there is still a long road to be travelled.
Key concepts: Britain
• Cultural Diversity: different cultures can exist within one country
• 1988 Education Act stated that teaching of religion in schools must
take into account of all religions practised in Britain. Each August
Britains cultural diversity is celebrated during Notting Hill Carnival
in London-led by members of the Caribbean population, many of
whom lived in the area since the 1950s and attracts 2million
people.
Key concept: France
• Assimilation: bringing the people of different races and cultures to
accept the ways and traditions of their adopted country
• Racism
• Identity
Race Relation in France: Timeline
• 1945-1970s: Thirty ‘Glorious Years’ of prosperity
• 1972: French National Front founded by Jean-Marie Le Pen
• 1973 & 1978: Oil Crises (unemployment 10%-mainly affected unskilled) The
Organisation of Arab Petroleum countries limited oil shipments to
countries that supported Israel.
Zero Immigration policy
◦ 1972: Ant-Racist Law: to protect immigrants living in France
◦ 1974: A halt on further immigration from non EEC countries-claimed it was
temporary
◦ 1977: Announcement to reduce existing immigrant population. Financial
incentive offered to encourage immigrants to leave voluntarily-failed
● 1980: Bombing of synagogue in Paris
Demolition of African workers hostel
◦ 1981: Mitterrand becomes President
◦ 1983: Increased vote for French National Front in Dreux
March against racism/March of Beurs from Marseille to Paris
◦ 1984: SOS Racisme founded
◦ 1986: Chirac’s victory in general election-promises tougher immigration
laws
◦ 1989: Headscarf Affair
National Front Victory in Dreux by-election
◦ 1990: Le Pen anti-Semitic remarks on TV
Gayssot Law-made it illegal to claim that the Holocaust had not
taken place after remarks by Le Pen who said he was not convinced
6 million Jews had died
100,000 rejected asylum seekers living in France illegally
Why immigrants came to France?
• Two main reasons: Economic and Political
• The French population fell due to the two world wars and a falling
birth rate.
• Workers needed for post war reconstruction and economic boom
• 1947-new law allowed inhabitants of North African colonies to
move freely to France
• To move away from dictatorships e.g. Portugal
Factors that influenced race relations 1980s
•
•
•
•
•
Changes in pattern of immigration
Worsening economic conditions
Housing and social conditions in working class areas
Rise of the National Front
Government policies
• http://www.htai.ie/podcasts/htai_conf10.mp3
Race Relations in France
• Immigration from WW2 to 1980
Following WW2, the French had a relaxed immigration policy. Heavy
population losses during the two world wards and the demands of a
growing economy meant that workers were needed. Large numbers of
Italians and Spanish came to live and work but by the 195os North Africans
also began to feature. In 1947, the French government had granted free
access to France to all inhabitants of their North African colonies in an
attempt to appease their demands for independence. Morocco, Tunisia and
Algeria, the Maghreb region, had all gained their independence by 1962
but continued to enjoy unrestricted access to France afterwards. Young
Africans were attracted to France by the prospect of a life of prosperity
which for most was not possible in their homelands. An upsurge in
immigration from the Maghreb region followed.
Social Problems and Race Relations
• As in many countries, the realities for immigrants did not match the
dream of prosperity. North Africans, known as Maghrebins, ended up
living in run-down inner city areas or in shantytowns called bidonvilles
on the outskirts of major cities. In the late 1950s, the French
government built housing projects to house immigrants and the French
people. They were soon beset by social problems. Their inhabitants were
mostly low-paid construction workers who, after the economic downturn
of the 1970s, suffered from high levels of unemployment. The cites were
also noted for their poor facilities and inadequate transport services. In
this environment crime grew. The French tabloid press highlighted these
crimes, creating negative stereotypes. Poor relations between the police
and the youth from the cites followed, leading to a number of riots
during the 1980s in urban centres such as Marseille and Lyon.
Government policy and the National Front
• The onset of recession led to new government policies. In 1974, a ban on
non-EEC immigration was introduced. This was followed by a repatriation
assistance package in which the government tried but failed to get
Maghrébins to return home. North Africans continued to settle in France
despite the new laws. Many sought asylum status. In many cases, these
asylum seekers stayed on illegally when their applications were refused.
The right wing National Front had been created by Jean Marie Le Pen in
1972 but it was in the 1980s that they became a force in French politics.
Le Pen’s controversial policies and statements were widely regarded as
anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim. He won support from those who
considered the ruling Socialist party of Francois Mitterand to be too soft
on immigration. In 1986, Le Pen won a surprisingly high 14.4% of the vote
in the presidential election.
Anti-immigration Law
• In 1986, Jacques Chirac’s centre right party RPR took power.
Chirac, wishing to undercut support for the National Front,
adopted tougher laws on immigration. This included the tightening
up of asylum laws and placing more focus on expelling illegal
immigrants. A new code of nationality was introduced, making it
harder for children of immigrants to claim French citizenship.
There was also a new emphasis on assimilating immigrants into the
French culture and way of life
Anti-Racist Movements and the Aftermath
• In response to the growth of the National Front, several anti-racist
groups have emerged. The most significant has been SOS-Racisme, which
was founded by members of the Socialist party in 1984.
• It is a moderate group which has attracted mainstream support through
various methods such as holding pop concerts and by taking legal action
against employers considered to be discriminatory.
• One of the most notable protests of the 1980’s France was the sol called
March of the Beurs which took place in 1984.
• The Beurs were the children of North African immigrants but most were
born and educated in France. More confident than their parents, they
resented being labelled as immigrants.
• Following a spate of racist attacks, they undertook a ten week march to
Paris to highlight their identity and cause. The march received much
positive attention but achieved no concrete reforms.
• In 1998, the Black, Blanc, Beur world cup winning football team was
hailed as an example of a new unity in France but, in reality, racial
tensions continue to exist.
• This can be seen in the race riots of 2005 and in strong, support for the
National Front.
• On the other hand, those who claim that France can and should
integrate the Maghrébins more fully into French society are encouraged
by a 2006 Pew survey showing that 42% of French Muslims viewed
themselves as French first and Muslims second, compared to only 6% of
British Muslims who saw themselves as British first.
What were government policies on
integration and assimilation?
• The French looked on themselves as a united nation. They expected immigrants
to integrate into French society.
• They believed that the job of the state school system was to ensure that the
republican ideal was taught.
• The French were opposed to multiculturalism, which would recognise all
cultures.
• By the 1980s some French people felt that it was less likely that immigrants
could be integrated into French society.
• This mostly centred on Islam, which many saw as differeing so much from the
French way of life that it would not be possible to integrate into
• These attitudes differed from what immigrants felt themselves. Three quarters
of second generation Muslims said they identified more closely with the lifestyle
and culture of the French than with that of their own parents.
What were the government policies on
immigration?
• President Francois Mitterrand had to drop his idea of giving voting rights to
immigrants in local elections because of rising tensions about immigrants
• Mitterrand and the Socialists imposed stricter laws on immigrants:
- More illegal immigrants were expelled
- It was more difficult for families to be reunited
◦ Immigration became a key issue in the 1986 general election. A right- wing
government led by PM Jacques Chirac, brought in tougher immigration laws.
◦ They also made political alliances with the National Front to win local elections.
◦ They proposed a new nationality law, which said children born in France to
foreign parents could no longer automatically become French Citizens at 18. This
law was eventually passed in 1993.
Why did the National Front gain popularity in
France during the 1980s
• Formed 1972
• Slogan 1979: ‘One million unemployed, one million immigrants too many. French
first’
• 1981 only 0.2% vote
• 1983 17% vote in Dreux-Slogan ‘Two million unemployed, two million immigrants too
many. French first’
• 1984 12% European elections
• 1986 35 deputies to National Assembly
• 1989 61% of vote in Dreux by-election. Used the Headscraf Affair to increase votes
• Dreux immigrant population-1954 (1.4%), 1975 (15%), 1982 (21%)
• http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/europe/2002/french_elections_
2002/le_pen_gallery/img8.stm
• One of the Principal reasons for the growth of the
National Front was the increased presence of immigrants
of North African origin in France during this period. From
the 1960’s onwards, the number of immigrants from the
Maghreb region had grown steadily and by the 1980’s
they outnumbered European immigrants.
• Unlike immigrants from Portugal or Italy, the Maghrébins
stood out because of their ethnicity and religion. Some
French people felt threatened by this, seeing the
Maghrébins as a threat to their culture and way of life.
• They argued that France’s treasured separation of
Church and State was threatened by the immigrants’
Muslim beliefs. In some cases, the objections were
simply based on racist attitudes.
• The changing economic environment had a major impact
on people’s attitudes towards foreigners. As
unemployment increased following oil crises of the 70’s,
people’s views hardened. Many in the working class
began to see immigrants as rivals for work.
• The National Front tapped into this sentiment by
accusing immigrants of stealing French jobs.
• The relaxed immigration policies of the governing
Socialist party was criticised severely by the National
Front. Their argument for more restrictive policies
appealed to French people. This was shown in the defeat
of the Socilaists in the 1986 elections
• Crime and the reporting of crime also played a major role in antiimmigrant feeling in France. The socially deprived cites, where
many immigrants lived, were natural breeding grounds for antisocial behaviour.
• French tabloids often reported these crimes in a sensationalist
manner in order to sell newspapers. This only served to drive more
people into the hands of the National Front.
• Finally, the leader of the National Front, Jean Marie Le Pem can
be seen as an instrumental figure for building up the profile of his
party. Le Pen is a deeply controversial character. He has been
accused of being anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic.
• However, many of his policies struck a chord with a section of the
French public. In particular, his calls for the preservation of
traditional French culture and a tougher stance on crime won him
many followers.
What happened in the city of Dreux?
• Dreux is a small city of France, about 60 miles west of Paris. It grew
from being a large town in 1954 (17,000 people) to a small industrial city
by 1975 (33,000 people)
• Dreux experienced changes similar to other cities in France
• Industrial change: Older traditional industries, such as show
manufacturing, declined and new industries came to Dreux. These new
industries depended on unskilled immigrant labour from Italy, Spain,
Portugal, Morocco and Algeria.
• Poorly laid-out public housing schemes were built on the edge of the
city. Dreux’s chaotic growth created a city segregated by age, social
class,a nd regional and national origin.
What was the ‘Headscarf Affair’ of 1989 and
what was its impact?
• In 1989, three Muslim girls were suspended from a state school in creil (north of
Paris) for wearing headscraves.
• The girls wore the scarves believing they were following the Islamic teaching that
they should cover their heads in public.
• The principal said that they were breaking French laws on secularism, under which
church and state are separated and which excluded wearing religious symbols or
garments.
• Asnti-racist organisations appealed their suspension to the Minister of Education,
and he overturned the suspensions.
• This led to a huge controversy in France. The controversy helped the National Front
to win a by-election in Dreux in 1989 with the slogan ‘No to the headscarf, no to
mosques’
• This forced the Socialist government to introduce measures which they said would
integrate immigrants into French society.
• Controversy continued during the 1990s, when there were clashes between school
authorities and girls wearing headscarves.
Two sides of the ‘headscarf affair’
For the headscarves
• Some said the girls were being
discriminated against because of
their religion
• They said Catholics were allowed
to crucifes
• 350,000 girls from Muslim families
attended school without causing
any trouble
• Excluding these girls from school
would make them more Islamic
Against the headscarves
• Religious symbols should not be worn
in state schools
• Some said Muslims should follow the
French way of life
• Wearing the scarves was an
expression of Muslim fundamentalism
and it should not be encouraged
• Wearing scarves was a sign that
women were under the control of
their husbands and it should not b
allowed
What role did anti-racist organisations play in
France in the 1980s
• SOS Racisme was founded in 1984 in direct response to the rise of the National
Front. It attracted supported from young French people and it used well-known
entertainers to publicise its caise
• It promoted racial harmony and protected minority groups against the spread of
racism. It was closely lined to the Socialist Party
• SOS Racisme appealed the decision by the principal in the ‘headscarf affair’ to the
Minister of Education and brought the attention of the media to it.
• France-Plus was also lined to the Socialist Party. It drew its support from young
Maghrébis. It tried to increase their involvement in politics and encouraged political
partied to offer Maghrébis places on their election lists.
• Marches such as the March against Racism from Marseille to Paris in 1983, were also
used to highlight issues which affected immigrants
• After the desecration of a Jewish cemetery in 1990, over 50 demonstrations against
racism were held around France, including a march by 200,000 people in Paris
• These organisations failed to counter the spread of the national front and racial
tensions continued to cause problems in France
http://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/nicolasanelka-cops-fivematch-ban-for-antisemitic-salute20140228-33n0c.html
Les Beurs
• https://www.facinghistory.org/civic-dilemmas
1995 Film-La Haine
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6tdBm2Gn-M
• Shows relations between French police and young immigrants or
children of immigrants
• It is about three young friends and their struggle to live in
the banlieues of Paris