AP Psychology
States of Consciousness
activation-synthesis theory on dreams
First proposed in 1977 by John Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley
at Harvard University, the activation-synthesis theory suggests that
REM sleep triggers changes in neural activity that initiates the
brainstem. This change in activity, which the theory supposes
happens throughout the day at different levels, creates the content
for REM sleep.
cognitive information processing
theory on dreams
The cognitive information processing theory on dreams suggest
that cognitive functions are the same when one is awake and
when one is asleep. Therefore, the brain is engaged in the same
functions in dreaming such as problem solving. Various people
have suggested that many of their ideas came to them in dreams.
Robert Plant and Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin have spoken about
songs coming to them in dreams. Robert Louis Stevenson said
the idea for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde was the product of a dream
and Elias Howe said the same about his invention of the sewing
machine.
consciousness
Consciousness refers to a state of awareness, including a person’s
feelings, sensations, ideas and perceptions.
Though definitive in the explanation above, it is otherwise a much
murkier concept to explore. According to British psychologist
Stuart Sutherland, “(Consciousness is) a fascinating but elusive
phenomenon: it is impossible to specify what it is, what it does, or
why it evolved. Nothing worth reading has been written about it.”
levels of consciousness:
Circadian rhythms
The circadian rhythm is a term describing one’s biological clock –
the time of activity and non-activity over the course of twenty-four
hours. This pattern of behavior is established, created by one’s
environment and the twenty-four day.
levels of consciousness: daydreaming
During periods of wakefulness, daydreaming is when a person
begins to lose focus on their immediate surroundings and focus on
something else. Traditionally, this is not seen as terribly productive
but an exercise of whimsy.
levels of consciousness:
drug-induced states
A drug-induced state is simply a level of consciousness brought on
by the usage of psychoactive drugs. Its effects can range from
relaxation and feelings of euphoria to the creation of mentally
destabilizing conditions that, if taken to excess, can cause
permanent brain damage and death.
levels of consciousness: hypnosis
Hypnosis is a state of consciousness characterized by focused
attention and increased suggestibility.
It is not sleep. Rather, it is an extreme focus on internal stimuli.
Hypnosis is commonly used by psychologists. Theodore Barber
(1965) suggested there was nothing special about hypnosis but
rather, it is something that can be achieved with effort. Ernest
Hilgard (1986) felt that hypnosis, in contrast, was quite constructive
and potentially helpful.
Posthypnotic suggestion is one made while under hypnosis that
influences the patient’s behavior afterwards.
levels of consciousness: hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls hunger, thirst, sexual behavior and
reactions to temperatures. It also activates the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems as well as the release of hormones from
the pituitary gland. It is also thought that along with the limbic
system, medulla and thalamus, the hypothalamus serves a function
with REM sleep.
levels of consciousness: meditation
Meditation requires the focusing of attention to clear the mind and
to induce relaxation.
There are three types of meditation:
Transcendental – repetition of a mantra for roughly 20
minutes, twice a day
Mindfulness – the meditation focuses on different parts of
the body, from head to toe with particular attention
on those parts that cause pain
Breath – concentration on inhaling and exhaling
levels of consciousness: preconscious
An entire career of observations led Freud to conclude that there
were different levels of awareness and sought to define and
related them to one another. This includes the conscious,
preconscious and unconscious. One’s preconscious contains
material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be
retrieved. This can include a good friend’s middle name, what you
had for dinner last night and an argument you had last week.
levels of consciousness:
reticular formation
Running through the center of the brainstem, passing through the
hindbrain and midbrain, the reticular formation is a part of the
brain that helps to modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing and
pain perception. One of its most important is its regulation of sleep
and arousal.
levels of consciousness: unconscious
An entire career of observations led Freud to conclude that there
were different levels of awareness and sought to define and
related them to one another. This includes the conscious,
preconscious and the unconscious. One’s unconscious contains
thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of
conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on
behavior.
manifest and latent content of dreams
According to Freud, dreams have several layers of meaning. The
manifest content of dreams are made up of the actual images – be it
a classroom, a field, vision of people long passed or animals. The
latent content of dreams is the meaning behind the images, revealing
the wishes of the dreamer.
physiological dependence (addiction)
With physiological dependence, the human body grows dependent
upon some drug or other foreign substance.
psychoactive drugs
The purpose of psychoactive drugs is to impact the central nervous
system and produce an alternate consciousness. These drugs can
range from the ubiquitous (coffee) to the prescribed (Ambien) to the
illegal and dangerous (marijuana and LSD).
Depressants
Hallucinogens – also known as psychedelics, are drugs that can
create hallucinations, such as LSD. There are other opiates
that can also produce hallucinations.
Narcotics
Stimulants
Cannabis
Alcohol
psychological dependence
With psychological dependence, a person must continue to take a
drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug.
Psychological dependence is possible with all recreational drugs.
sleep stages
Stage 1 – During this stage, there is a general relaxation with irregular
breathing and brain waves. Typically, this lasts 10 minutes.
Stage 2 – Here, the brain shifts from low-amplitude, high frequency
waves to high amplitude, low frequency waves; this is
accompanied by the slow, side-to-side movement of the eyes.
This tends to last 30 minutes.
Stage 3 – During this stage, large amplitude delta waves begin sweeping
the brain every couple of seconds or so.
Stage 4 – This stage is the deepest sleep a person experiences. Suddenly
awaken from this stage creates disorientation. During this stage,
night terrors, sleepwalking and bed-wetting occur.
REM – Lasting 15-45 minutes a night, this is the most active period
where one’s body responds as if awake to the images
produced in your consciousness.
sleep disorders: insomnia
Insomnia is the condition of seldom getting more than one or two
hours of sleep a night on a regular basis. The causes of this are a
varied as the people who suffer with the condition. Long-term
insomnia can create serious health conditions.
sleep disorders: narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a condition where one falls asleep often or is very
tired throughout the period of being awake. Irregular sleep
patterns can cause narcolepsy and such a condition can cause
serious problems with work and leisure time, as well as
interpersonal relationships.
sleep disorders:
nightmares and night terrors
Nightmares are common but scary dreams that occur during REM
sleep. Typically, people will awake before the worst happens in such
a dream.
Night terrors, which occur in stage IV sleep, can last as long as twenty
minutes and is typically accompanied by screaming, sweating and
confusion, as well as rapid heart rate. Unlike nightmares, people
seldom have memories of the terror itself.
sleep disorders: sleep apnea
Sleep apnea is a disorder where a person has difficulty breathing
while sleeping. This is typically accompanied by snoring, a
condition where the person is actually choking. Most of the
causes center on physical defects, as opposed the mental stress
that causes insomnia.
sleep disorders: sleepwalking
Sleepwalking (also known as somnambulism) is a condition where
the person is part awake, part asleep. There is no memory left over
by the sleepwalker of what they did or how long. It is typically seen
in children though adults also can suffer.
Scientists have linked sleep walking to stress and the use of
sedatives but there is also proof that it is inherited. In theory, it is
harmless but if the person falls or walks into a dangerous situation
(into a street), it can be quite harmful.
withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms refer to a host of physical reactions when
there is a decline in or elimination of addictive or psychological
dependent drugs. The severity and danger of withdrawals depend
a great deal on the drug in question, how long it has been used
and to what extent.