1750 – 1914 CE
nd

• Change: Give Up the Old Ways for New Ways
• Improved economic systems
• Technological Revolution
• Social Changes including more rights for women
• An increasing emphasis on secularization
• Democratic government
• Modernization or Westernization?
• How to Modernize without Westernizing
• Most non-European nations wanted to modernize
• Dependency Theory
• Developing nations are economically dependent on developed nations
• Developed nations drain resources from developing nations
• Developing nations export agricultural products, raw minerals, labor
• Developing nations import finished products
• Dependency inherent in capitalism
• Marxist Theory
• Nations which adopt socialism do not need to westernize, be dependent

• 1st: 1780 – 1850
• Textiles, Coal, Iron, Transportations
• UK, Belgium, France, USA
• 2 nd : 1880 – 1914
• Electricity, Chemicals, Steel
• Germany, Italy, Russia, Austria, Japan
• Science and technology holds salvation
• “Frankenstein”

• Beginnings
• Capitalization came from Caribbean sugar profits
• 1750 – 1820s: Began in Great Britain
• 1800 – 1850: Spread to France, Belgium, Germany, United States
• 1850 – 1914: Spread to Russia, Japan, Austria (Czech lands)
• Impact was Global
• Massive Growth of Global Trade
• Imports of raw minerals and materials
• Cottons
• Fuels
• Iron
• Export of finished goods
• Labor markets became global
• Slave Trade from 1750 to 1820 more or less
• Three Slave Trades
• Atlantic was largest; Indian Ocean last to end
• Immigration to Americas in search of work
• Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese immigrated to work plantations
• Indentured Servitude, Tenant Farming, Sharecropping

• Capitalization of the Industrial Revolution
• Sugar production was highly labor intensive, capital intensive
• Caribbean generated millions in profit, deposited in banks
• British inventors, industrialists could easily borrow money
• Preceded Industrial Revolution by about 50 years
• 2 nd Agricultural Revolution
• In UK: Experimentation with new crops, animal breeding
• Enclosure movements
• Larger, wealthier landowners enclose public lands
• Force smaller farmers off their land
• Increased efficiency
• Forced smaller farmers off land, to cities looking for work
• Improved farming techniques
• Mechanization of Agriculture
• Industrial technologies applied to farming
• Most pronounced in USA, Canada

***
Europe
1800
150
1850
206
Russia 37 60
• European population
• Between 1700 – 1800
• Rose to 190 million
• Population Explosion
• Due to increase in birth rate
• Decline in death rate
• Birth rate exceeds death rate
Africa
Asia
North America
South America
Oceania
90
602
16
9
2
95
749
39
20
2
• Sanitary Conditions
• Medical care improved
• Nutrition improved
• Sanitation improved
• Life Expectancy in developing nations rose
• Europeans introduced medical, sanitary practices abroad
1900
291
111
120
937
106
38
6

• New sources of power, energy
• Muscle power replaced by machines
• Human labor, animal power
• Steam power uses coal
• Later electricity due to natural gas, oil
• Factory System
• Mechanization of production
• Required concentration of labor in one place
• Success in one area fueled interest in others
• Inventions applied to other fields
• Entrepreneurship rewarded by European societies
• 1 st Industrial Revolution: 1780 – 1850
• Concentrated in power (steam), transportation
• Mechanization of clothing production
• 2 nd Industrial Revolution: 1870 – 1914
• Concentrated in chemicals, electricity, communications

• Steam ships
• Railroads
• Telegraph
• Trans-Oceanic Cables
• Rise of Mass Newspapers
• Centers of commerce, industry
• Attracted population to jobs
nd

• Rate of spread dependent on other factors
• How supportive of industry was society?
• How supportive of industry was the government?
• Wars had a tendency to mandate industrialization
• French Revolution, Napoleon helped UK
• Crimean War fueled changes in Russia favoring industry
• Germany, France, Russia modernized out of defense needs
• Civil War impacted US: factories, railroads
• Japan forcibly opened by Perry, Meiji Restoration follows
• Trade and Imperialism spread industry
• Europe, Japan needed raw materials, sought them abroad
• Trade flourished as all nations involved in trade
• Asia, Africa, Latin America were sources of raw materials
• Many Europeans built factors abroad in colonies
• Some empires began to train a local native technical class

• Factories Built
• Near access to ports, power, workers
• Shift of people
• From countryside to city
• Due to poor harvests, too many to feed
• Too little land to work
• Allure of city life away from farm
• Increased urbanization
• Middle Class arose
• Factory managers, shop owners
• Professionals such as lawyers, accountants, technocrats
• Brutal working conditions
• Reactions – Call for Reforms
• Radicalization of workers including rise of unions, welfare systems
• Radicalization of some political ideologies: Socialism, Marxism
• Calls for reform including political and social

• Reform Movements
• Socialism
• Utopianism sought ideal solutions
• Work with state, factory owners
• Marxism
• Class struggle natural, instrument of change
• State always serves those with money
• Rich (bourgeoisie) get richer, poor (proletariat) get poorer
• Change only can come about as a violent revolution
• Successful revolution would establish workers’ paradise
• Communism or Bolshevism
• Marxism was basis but needed a revolutionary party to lead
• Conditions do not have to be right for a revolution, make one!
• Reform Socialism
• Change through ballot box, elections: does not have to be violent
• Trade Unionism
• Workers seek to redress grievances through collective action, strikes
• State Initiated Reforms
• Often called Liberalism
• Increase suffrage, written constitutions
• Suffrage limited however to upper middle class, those who had property, were educated
• Reform diffused possibilities of revolt: expand electorate, social insurance

• Poor women
• had to migrate to cities for work
• Worked in factories, brought in a second income
• Sweatshop industries became common
• Upper class women
• More wealth, more servants to manage
• Less power outside home than in previous eras
• Middle Class housewives
• A new class has a new group of women
• Tended to imitate upper class moral standards, lifestyles
• Cult of Domesticity, Victorian Age of Women encouraged
• But some women could now get university educations
• Women became active in some reform movements
• Colonies and Women
• European women had great influence abroad, set a standard for others
• Native women acquired some of same roles of Middle Class housewives
• Women still had family responsibilities
• Society was still patriarchal

• Abolition preceded women’s suffrage
• Women very involved in abolition movements
• Suffrage took a second place to abolition
• Women became involved in other reform movements: temperance, Progressives
• Seneca Falls Declaration in 1848
• Frederick Douglass attended as delegate
• A Slow Process – Two Steps Forward, One Back
• Role of Enlightenment
• Women ran salons, fostered intellectual freedom
• French Revolution
• Women granted full rights and vote until Napoleon
• Olympia de Gouges, Mary Wollstonecraft
• Napoleon took back gains, no vote until 1944
• In UK, US –
• Reforms, progressive movements met resistance
• World War I in UK, US won women the vote, rights
• Africa, Asia, Middle East gave women vote as part of decolonization
• Latin America, Russia, China, Japan: depended on other factors
• Socialism, Communism often granted women the vote for first time

• Abolition of the Slave Trade, Slavery
• Calls for its abolition
• Religious groups were instrumental: Methodists, Quakers
• UK was the leader in the movement to abolish both
• Enlightenment, French Revolution began process
• Abolished in Americas as part of national independence processes
• Industry was not compatible with slavery
• Slaves had no reason to work hard, no tendency to innovate, experiment
• Factories could not use slaves as they were too expensive
• US, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Brazil were last American nations to abolish slavery
• Emancipation of Russian Serfs
• Reasons
• Rising violence and rebellion amongst serfs
• Serfs bound to land, had no reason to work harder for someone else
• Russian needed workers in factories
• Russia lacked an internal market, serfs were potential customers
• Russia lost Crimean War, reformers blamed loss on backwardness
• Emancipation of 1861
• Serfs were free, no longer bound to land, now could work elsewhere
• Reality: serfs became tenant farmers, indentured labor for landlords
• Reality: no land reform – serfs got the worse land, could not pay taxes

• Increased contacts made this inevitable
• Modernization came with a Western bias
• Modernization often carried with it westernization
• Rural to Urban Migration throughout world
• Immigration
• European immigration to Americas between 35-50 million
• European population transformed Americas, Oceania
• African Slave Trade not abolished until early 1800s
• Africans transported to Americas but also SW Asia, Indian Ocean
• Substitute Labor for Plantations
• Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese filled need
• Often agricultural labor but small business owners, wives followed
• Settlement of frontiers
• Russians, Americans, Chinese, Boer Afrikaaners, Brazilians, Argentines

• Previous State Structures
• Decentralized
• Feudal Monarchy
• Aristocratic privilege, vassals, feudal lords, hierarchy
• Centralized
• Divine Right Monarchy and Absolute Monarchy
• Loyalty to one man, centralized state apparatus, elites
• Rise of Nationalism
• Loyalty to the state, a national consciousness
• Strong ideology amongst middle classes but spread to all classes
• Fueled by French Revolution, Napoleon: nationalism spread
• Nationalism threatens multi-national empires: Austria, Russia, Ottoman
• Reactions
• Congress of Vienna opposed nationalism
• Balance of Power: Great powers manage change, prevent change
• Restored monarchs to thrones, redrew national boundaries
• Burgeoning European nationalisms
• Unite one ethnic group under an independent ethnic state
• Germany: Prussia and Bismarck united Germany in 1870
• Italy: Sardinia and Cavour united Italy in 1860-1870
• Pan-Slavism, Austro-Slavism, or Independence
• European Example Copied Abroad
• India: Sepoy Rebellion, Indian National Congress, African National Congress
• China, Japan
• Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam
• Young Turks of Ottoman Empire, Persia
• Mexico

• The Stage is Set
• State is economically weak, government is ineffective
• New ideas arise, new groups arise to challenge status-quo, intellectual movements influence change
• Old Regime Loses Control
• Old elites attempt to reassert privileges
• Some short term event sparks a conflict, disaster rallies forces who oppose old elites
• Government too divided and weak to suppress revolt
• Moderate Phase of the Revolution
• Moderates come to power, initiate changes
• Electorate expanded, constitution liberalized, some reforms initiated
• Reaction to the Moderates Arise
• Moderates enact only limited reforms
• Radicals mobilize their supporters demanding more extensive reforms
• Radicals Seize Control
• Radicals take control of state and revolution
• Radicals enact sweeping changes, eliminate old institutions completely
• Radical Reign of Terror
• Foreign, domestic opposition arises to challenge radicals
• Radicals react, remove opponents, seek to institutionalize, spread their ideology
• Moderate Return
• Moderates who come to represent the majority remove radicals
• End the most radical reforms, return privileges to many groups, lose contact with people
• Rise of a Strong Leader or Authoritarianism
• Usually a military leader arises to oppose moderates
• Seizes control of state, institutionalizes revolution, revolution ends

• American Revolution 1776 – 1783
• French Revolution 1789 – 1799
• Haitian Revolution 1793 – 1802
• Latin American Revolutions 1810 – 1822
• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, 1820s
• European Revolutions 1820s – 1848
• Belgium revolts from Netherlands
• Greece revolts from Ottoman Empire
• French Revolutions in 1830 and 1848
• European Revolutions in 1848: Germany, Italy, Central Europe
• Meiji Restoration (Japan) 1867
• Young Turks (Ottoman Empire) 1908 – 1920s
• 1 st Iranian Revolution 1905
• 1 st Russian Revolution 1905
• Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920
• Chinese Revolution 1911 – 1912

• Stages
• Enlightenment, US Revolution, French Revolution influences creoles
• Creoles feel marginalized by peninsulares, mother countries’ government
• French Revolution, Napoleon occupy Iberia, make changes which creoles, peninsulares hate
• Colonies left on their own and begin to make decisions without benefit of mother country
• Creoles lead independence movements, form militias, resist return of Spain
• Civil wars, turmoil, suffering followed as creoles battle Spain for control
• Conservatives take control of new states after independence
• Result
• Many newly independent nations
• Mexico: Grito de Dolores, Fr. Hidalgo & Morelos, Iturbide
• South America: Simon Bolivar (North), Jose de San Martin (Central)
• Brazil: Different – peaceful split from Portugal, new ruler becomes emperor
• Haiti: Different – a slave revolt, rebellion led to independence
• After Independence
• Life for majority of people (mestizos, mulattos, Blacks, Indians) little changed, marginalized
• Societies remained largely casted
• Small powerful elite of creole families ruled independent states
• Church is part of the government structure; assists governing elite – rise of anti-clericalism
• Rule by military strongmen called caudillos becomes common; armies turn on people
• Struggle between liberals and conservatives, centrists and federalists to define state structures
• Developments limited to exportable goods, industries and most assets controlled by foreigners
• Heavy British, American investment in resources leads to Western financial control
• Standouts: Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile

• Continuity
• European continued economic dominance of world
• European empires continued to exist
• Persistence of social norms in most areas resisting change
• Change
• Europeans expanded dominance of world to Africa, Asia
• Europeans became industrial, commercial center of world
• Europeans lost political control of the Americas
• US, Japan, Germany join great powers
• Westernization, modernization impacts mass society
• Prior to 1750
• Asians, Africans controlled own countries
• Europeans allowed trading rights, bases but limited influence
• Internal trade left to locals, Asian states licensed groups to trade
• Europeans controlled trans-Oceanic trade
• Change Begins
• Dutch, English, French challenge Spain, Portugal
• Spain, Portugal relied on royal monopolies
• Newcomers used privately owned companies, initiative
• By 1800
• Between 1789-1820, 1 st European colonial empires collapsed
• Only viable European colonial empire was Great Britain
• Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French had minor possessions

• United States: Liberal democracy with expanding suffrage but no rights for women, blacks
• 1750 – 13 British Colonies with strong traditions of self-rule
• 1800 – Successful revolution, new government; Mississippi border, Manifest Destiny, Monroe Doctrine
• 1850 – War With Mexico Acquires West but country at height of sectionalism over slavery
• 1875 – Fought Civil War, Slavery Ended; US Industrial Power as #3 in world
• 1914 – US acquires an empire in Pacific, Caribbean; Mass Immigration; Open Door Policy
• Germany: Autocratic democracy struggling with socialism, industrialization
• 1750 – 400+ states, Prussia and Austria were the largest
• 1800 – Germany was a dependent of Napoleon, whose rule created German nationalism
• 1850 – Industrial Revolution, nationalism gripped Germany; democracy was clear loser in 1848
• 1875 – Prussia had united Germany, humiliated France and Austria, created an autocratic empire
• 1914 – Germany was the #2 industrial power in world, #2 navy, #1 army
• Russian Empire: autocratic state plagued by struggle for reform, rights; dominated by elite
• 1750 – New great power having defeated Sweden, Ottoman Empire
• 1800 – One of two free great powers left to oppose Napoleon, revolution, liberalism
• 1850 – Europe’s policeman, opposed revolution, nationalism, liberalism
• 1875 – Had lost Crimean War; emancipation of serfs had not helped; spreading radicalism, industry
• 1914 – 1905 Revolution by workers, soviets crushed; reforms limited; internally very weak
• Japan: From Shogunate to Constitutional Monarch dominated by elite industries, military
• 1750 – Still isolated internationally with only one yearly contact through Nagasaki; Dutch Learning
• 1800 – Shogun weakening but Dutch learning had spread
• 1854 – US forces Japan to end isolation, open ports
• 1875 – Meiji Restoration had overthrown Shogun; massive industrialization, modernization
• 1904 – Had built modern army, navy: had defeated China, Russia, annexed Ryuykus
• 1914 – Only non-European great power; had alliance with UK, annexed Korea, interested in China

• Rise of Diplomacy and Diplomats
• Renaissance saw rise of diplomats as a class, institution
• Rules of conduct set: extraterritoriality of diplomats, embassies
• Enlightenment: growth of works on international law, treaties
• Alliances
• Temporary alliances of states with similar objectives not new
• Diplomatic Revolution of 1750s: Rise of Prussia, Great Britain
• Grand Alliance /Holy Alliance against France, Revolution
• Balance of Power
• No one state should dominate; states team up to restore balance
• War is failed diplomacy – use force to achieve objectives
• Alliance Systems
• Germany upset balance in 1870; France humiliated
• Germany and France become the center of two competing alliances
• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy (Ottoman Empire)
• Triple Entente: France, Russia, United Kingdom (Japan)

• Imperialism
• Powerful nations extend control over less-powerful nations
• Control can be direct, indirect, political, economic, social
• 1492-1820 is an age of colonialism
• Colonialism tends towards recreating European cultures and settler colonies
• 1830-1914 is an age of imperialism
• Imperialism tends towards exploiting other nations to benefit the mother country
• Less concern with making the colony a settler colony
• Spurred By
• Nationalism and nationalist competition
• Desire for prestige, military power, glory
• Desire to maintain balance of power
• France defeated by Germany in 1870 sought balance in colonies
• Russia, Germany seek to rival UK in Asia, acquire colonies
• Industrial Revolution
• Seek markets for your goods
• Seek sources for raw materials especially fuels
• Results Of
• Increased life expectancy, literacy
• Destruction of traditional patterns of life to support European systems
• Imposition of new values, customs including religious systems

• Types
• Direct
• Favored by France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Japan
• Replace local leaders with men sent out by mother countries
• Introduce own laws, law systems, courts, governmental bodies
• Did not believe locals were capable of governing themselves
• Indirect
• Favored by UK, US, Netherlands
• Rule through existing elites, institutions
• Change as few customs, traditions as possible
• Senior officials appointed by mother country
• Establish schools to educate young men for civil service jobs
• Dominions
• Settler colonies granted virtual independence, self-rule
• Applies to Canada, Australia, NZ, South Africa
• The United States
• Beginning in 1867, US expanded into Pacific – Wake Island, Alaska
• In 1898 acquired Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Samoa
• Expansion due in large part to industrialization, nationalism, navy
• Japan
• Began in 1870s with annexation of Ryuku Islands
• Led to conflicts with China (1894), Russia (1904)
• Ended with annexation of Taiwan, Korea, Pacific Islands, assets in China

• Economic Imperialism
• Actually described by Marx, Lenin
• Involved dominance of industry, finance
• Let to competitions between national firms
• US, UK, Germany were three greatest rivals to 1914
• Examples
• US loan money, invested in Mexico, Central America, Caribbean
• UK invested heavily in South America
• Germany invested heavily in Eastern Europe, Balkans, Turkey
• France invested heavily in Russia
• Europeans built Latin American infrastructure to help exports
• Racism and Social Darwinism
• Theory of Evolution and Darwin led to this development
• Natural selection, survival of fittest applied to imperialism
• Social Darwinism theorized that certain nations, races were superior
• The inferior races should be dominated by superior, civilized nations

• Ottoman Empire
• Causes
• Russia attacks Ottomans, supports Pan-Slavic nationalism
• Egypt begins to modernize, break away
• Local Reaction
• Turks fight back, seek support of UK, France
• Turkey seeks to modernize: Tanzimat Reforms, Young Turk Movement
• Outcome
• Ottoman Empire seen as the “sick man of Europe”
• Turks loose control of Balkans, North Africa, Caucasus
• India
• Causes
• Europeans vie for control of Indian Ocean trade, ports under the Mughals
• European rivalry spills over into India
• British East India Company builds a trading empire in India
• Local Reaction
• Initially none from Mughals but local princes try to oppose British, ally with French
• Marathas, Sikhs, others oppose British expansion
• Sepoy Rebellion on 1857 – Indian Muslims and Hindus join forces against British
• Outcome
• British government takes control of the East India Company, territory
• Creates the Empire of India with Queen Victoria as the Empress
• Allows local princes to control local affairs (UK controls army, diplomacy, national politics)

• Japan
• Causes
• US under Commodore Perry forces Japan to open its ports to the West in 1854
• Japan sees what has happened in China
• Local Reaction
• Shogun deposed, Emperor returned to power under Meiji Restoration in 1867
• Meiji Restoration modernizes, industrializes, but only moderately westernizes 1867 - 1912
• Outcome
• Japan becomes a major power able to resist Europeans, defeats Russians in 1904 war
• Annexes islands, parts of China, Korea and creates its own empire (1877 – 1910)
• China
• Causes
• Foreign merchants trade even if opium trade is forbidden; Western influence continues to grow
• Discontent with Manchu (Qing) Dynasty
• Local Reaction
• Western-educated, intellectuals seek reforms but conservatives, Confucians block reforms
• Taiping Rebellion: Christian messianic traditions blend with Confucianism, poor peasants rebel
• Boxer Rebellion against Western influence supported by Dowager Empress, fails
• Outcome
• UK forces China to open ports to trade, westerners (Opium Wars, Treaty Ports, Extraterritoriality)
• Other powers partition China into treaty ports, spheres of influence (Sino-Japanese War)
• 1911 Revolution overthrows the Manchu Dynasty

• Africa
• Egypt
• Mehmet Ali: An Albanian officer in Turkish Army comes to control Egypt
• Seeks to modern country on European model: army, industry, society
• Greatest resistance comes from Europeans who defeat his navy, limit his regime, influence
• East Africa
• The Sudan
• Sudan controlled by a corrupt Turkish-Egyptian regime
• Man claiming to be the Madhi or promised one preceding the end of time appears, rallies region
• Preaches a reformed, puritanical Islam stripped of western ideas, concepts
• Defeats Egyptian force led by a British general
• British re-invade in 1898 and crush regime, rule Sudan as a co-dominion with Egypt
• Ethiopia
• Italy seeks to create an empire in East Africa, occupies Eritrea, Somalia; advanced against Ethiopia
• Ethiopia under Menelik II had modernized, acquired western arms – defeats Italy
• Southern Africa
• The Zulus
• Rise of Shaka Zulu in early 1800s creates a Zulu Empire, produces Mkfane or dispersal of Bantu tribes
• Zulus threaten British settlers in Natal Province and Boer Republics, clash with British
• Britain defeats, annexes Zululand
• The Boers
• Great Britain acquired Capetown Colony during Napoleonic Wars
• Increasing English influence, immigration drove Boers (Dutch farmers) to migrate inland
• Boers set up Afrikaaner Republics independent of British
• Gold/diamonds discovered, which British covet; Anglo-Boer War: British attack, defeat, annex Boer Republics
• South Africa created in 1910

• Arts: Art, Music, and Literature
• Classicism: Idealization of the Past (Greeks, Romans)
• Romanticism: Idealization of nation, national culture
• Realism: look at society as it is, not idealized
• Impressionism as reaction to, fascination with industrialization
• Post-Impressionism begins movement towards emotions
• Philosophy
• Materialism
• Idealism
• Progressivism
• Sciences
• Physics: Einstein, Currie, Roentgen
• Psychology as a result of Freud’s studies
• Biology and Genetics: Mendel, Darwin
• Medicine: Jenner, Pasteur, Koch, Lister, Walter Reed

• Compare the causes and phases on the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain or the United States with Russia or Japan.
• Compare industrial development in Brazil or South America with economic developments in China, India, or Russia.
• Compare and contrast the importance of trade and international economic relations on any two civilizations, one
European and one non-European. Non-European can include
Eastern Europe specifically Austria-Hungary and Russia. Non-
European nations should include the Ottoman Empire,
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, India, Egypt, China, and Japan.

• Compare the American or French Revolution with one of these revolutions: Haiti 1798; Latin American 1820;
Mehmet Ali in Egypt 1822; Mexico 1911, Russia 1905;
Taiping Rebellion 1850; China 1911; or Iran 1910.
• Compare nationalism in the following pairs: China and
Japan, Egypt and Italy, Pan-Africanism and the Indian
National Congress
• Compare the process of modernization as opposed to
Westernization in any two non-European nations in the
19 th or 20 th century.

• Compare and contrast the reactions and responses of any two of these states to Western influence and imperialism: China,
Japan, Ottoman Empire, Southeast Asia, and India.
• Compare nationalism and nationalist movements in any two of these states: Cuba, Philippines, China, Japan, Ottoman Empire,
Egypt, India, and Vietnam.
• Compare forms of Western intervention in any two regions:
Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia.
• Compare and contrast any two colonial empires including methods of government, economic development, and social changes: France, Great Britain, United States, Russia, and
Japan.

• Compare the roles of upper class/aristocratic women with women from the working, peasant, and poor classes in Western Europe and any one non-Western nation.
• Compare the spread of Christianity and Islam in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
• Compare the movement by populaces to settle interior lands in any two frontier societies: United States, Russia,
Brazil, South Africa, Australia, and China.
• Compare the process and problems of urbanization in any two of these cities: Tokyo, London, Paris, New York,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, Bombay, Cairo,
Constantinople, and Mexico City.