How a DBQ is graded: 7 points
A. Thesis and Argument Development (Total of 2 points)
1 point
Presents a thesis that makes a historically defensible claim and
responds to all parts of the question.
1 Point
Develops and supports a cohesive argument that recognizes and
accounts for historical complexity by explicitly illustrating relationships
among historical evidence such as contradiction, corroboration, and/or
qualification.
Suggestions for Thesis:
When writing a thesis…
1. include all parts of the question (prompt).
This means that your thesis may be 2 sentences.
2. state an argument you plan to support.
Beginning with the Pilgrims, all colonists throughout the 3 regions,
sought to establish some form of representative government. Although
this desire may not have united the colonists to break away from Great
Britain, it was a driving force in the movement for independence in the
late 18th century.
B. Document Analysis (Total of 2 points)
1 point
Utilizes the content of at least 6 of the documents to support the
stated thesis or a relevant argument.
1 point
Explains the significance of the author’s point of view, author’s
purpose, historical context, and/or audience for at least 4 documents.
C. Using Evidence Beyond the Documents (2 Points)
Contextualization: 1 point
Requires using knowledge not found in the documents to situate the argument
within broader historical events, developments, or processes immediately
relevant to the question. The contextualization point is not awarded for merely a
phrase or reference, but instead requires an explanation, typically consisting of
multiple sentences or a full paragraph.
Evidence Beyond the Documents: 1 point
Provides an example or additional piece of specific evidence beyond those found in the
documents to support or qualify the argument.
Scoring Notes:
• This example must be different from the evidence used to earn other points on this rubric.
• This point is not awarded for merely a phrase or reference. Responses need to reference an
additional piece of specific evidence and explain how that evidence supports or qualifies the
argument.
D. Synthesis: 1 point
Extends the argument by explaining the connection between the
argument and ONE of the following:
a) A development in a different historical period, situation, era or
geographical area.
b) A course theme and/or approach to history that is not the focus of
the essay (such as political, economic, social, cultural, or intellectual
history).
Scoring Note: The synthesis point requires an explanation of the
connections to different historical period, situation, era, or
geographical area, and is not awarded for merely a phrase or reference.
To summarize…
1. Thesis
2. Analysis
State the importance of the document:
how it connects to the prompt & your
3. Contextualization
thesis and add additional information.
author’s point of view, purpose,
historical context or audience
4. Synthesis – make a connection to another period in history, another
topic or situation
WHAT ARE YOUR QUESTIONS?
Today’s EQ:
How did the French & Indian War affect the
Native American population and the
relations between Great Britain and its
colonies?
Unit 3 Vocabulary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
French &Indian War,
Seven Year’s War
Peace of Paris 1763
salutary neglect
Pontiac’s Rebellion
Proclamation of 1763
The French & Indian War – 1754-1763
CAUSES OF THE WAR:
* Both countries were fighting for
control over the entire West,
including the Mississippi Valley
(Ohio River Valley)
The French Empire
French areas of colonization:
the St. Lawrence River
Valley, Quebec, the Great
Lakes, Louisiana
This is where the F&I War
was fought.
The French & Indians fought against the British Redcoats & the
colonists
The French and Indian allies won many early battles.
Spain was also allied with the French.
The French & Indian War – 1754-1763
• Great Britain & France were old rivals.
• While this war was fought in America,
it was also being fought in Europe
(known as the Seven Years War)
• The French had forts in the Ohio River
Valley and a lucrative trade with the
Native Americans. These forts
prevented the 13 British colonies from
expanding westward.
• George Washington was sent by
Virginia’s Governor Dinwiddie to tell
the French to vacate the forts,
sparking a war between France &
England.
• At first the war went badly for the British.
• Recognizing the need for coordinating
colonial defense, the British government
called for representatives from several
colonies to meet in a congress at Albany, NY
in 1754.
• Delegates from 7 colonies adopted a plan –
the Albany Plan of Union developed by
Benjamin Franklin that provided for an
intercolonial government and a system for
recruiting troops and collecting taxes from
the various colonies for their common
defense.
• Each colony was just too jealous of its own
taxation powers to accept the plan so it
never took effect.
• The Albany congress was significant,
however, because it set a precedent for
later more revolutionary congress in the
1770s (1st & 2nd Continental Congresses)
The war continued
• The British won the war under the leadership of William Pitt whose
strategy was to conquer Canada (under the control of the French).
• Under General James Wolfe, the British captured Quebec leading to a
peace treaty – the Peace of Paris or Treaty of Paris, 1763.
Victory at Quebec gave the
British control; was the
turning point of the conflict
-Treaty of Paris, 1763 or the
Peace of Paris
-France lost all lands in
America; Great Britain
gained Canada and all the
land up to the Mississippi
River including Spanish
Florida. (France ceded to
Spain the Louisiana
Territory since they had to
give up Florida.
Immediate Effects of the War
• Britain’s victory established them as the dominant naval power in the world.
• The war changed how the British and the colonists viewed each other.
• British view: a low opinion of the colonial military abilities; saw them as
poorly trained, disorderly rabble. Upset that some of the colonies had
refused to contribute either troops or money to the war effort and were
convinced that the colonists were unable and unwilling to defend the new
frontiers gained from the war, thus requiring the British Redcoats to stay and
patrol the area.
• Colonial view: were proud of how they fought in the war; developed
confidence that they could provide for their own defense; were not
impressed with British troops or their leadership, whose methods of warfare
seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America.
More Effects:
• A change in British colonial policies.
• Previously, Britain had exercised little direct control over the colonies
and had exercised little direct control over the colonies; had even
allowed its Navigation laws to go unenforced – a policy known as
salutary neglect.
• With an expanded empire, Britain now felt the need to maintain a
large British military force to guard its American frontiers, a cost the
colonists were expected to pay for.
Problems after the War
The colonists began settling on the land
west of the Mississippi River which
led to the Indians in the Ohio Valley
revolting & attacking colonial
settlements on the western frontier.
Native Americans upset by the
British refusal to offer gifts and
continue trading like the French had
done.
(PONTIAC’S REBELLION)
-conflicts were becoming costly for
Britain so they issued the…
...Proclamation of 1763 which stated
that colonists could not cross the
Appalachian Mtns – colonists saw this
as a violation of their rights; would be
a cause of the Revolutionary War!
-Colonists ignored the law and
continued to provoke Indians
Tensions build between Britain & the 13
colonies after the war. Why?
British heavily in debt b/c of war;
Britain begin taxing the colonies
As long as the colonies made a profit for
Great Britain, GB left them alone.
(salutary neglect)
The F&I War ended salutary neglect due
to the debt from the war because now
GB needed to collect taxes for
revenue.
-
-standing British Army in the
colonies when the colonists no
longer needed their protection
(an expense to the colonists)
Exit Ticket
• GIST: 20 word sentence responding to today’s EQ
•How did the French & Indian War affect the
Native American population and the
relations between Great Britain and its
colonies?
EQ:
•Why did the colonists rebel against
Great Britain?
Today’s Vocabulary
8. Sugar Act
9. Stamp Act
10. Quartering Act
11. Declaratory Act
12. Townshend Acts
13. the Gaspee Incident
14. Coercive/Intolerable Acts
15. Quebec Act
Changes in British imperial policies… for revenue not protection.
King George III – monarch of GB
Lord George Grenville – chancellor of the
exchequer (treasury) and prime minister
whose job was to raise money to pay off the
debt incurred from the F&I War
HOW?
1. Sugar Act
also called the Revenue Act; purpose was to
raise money for the Crown; was supposed to
discourage smuggling & other activities that
prevented the Navigation Acts from being
profitable
protests began against taxation without
representation
James Otis, attorney known for saying
"Taxation without representation is tyranny."
2.
Quartering Act – required the
colonists to provide food and living
quarters for British soldiers
stationed in the colonies; a right we
are protected from in the 3rd
Amendment
3. Stamp Act - – the only British tax to
affect all 13 colonies
-placed a direct tax on the colonists
(collected from those who used the
goods)
-required a stamp on all legal documents,
newspapers, license, and playing cards
-affected many colonists rich and poor
Protesting the Stamp Act
• Representatives from 9 colonies
met in NY in 1765 to form the
STAMP ACT CONGRESS –
resolving that only their own
elected representatives had the
legal authority to approve taxes
• Patrick Henry (VA) “taxation
without representation”
• Formation of the Sons and
Daughters of Liberty, a secret
society organized for the
purpose of intimidating tax
agents. They sometimes “tarred
and feathered” revenue officials
(tax collectors) and destroyed
revenue stamps.
• Boycotts against British goods
was the most effective form of
protest which led to Parliament
repealing the Stamp Act!
Trying to save face…
• Since GB repealed the Stamp
Act, they issued the Declaratory
Act that asserted that
Parliament had the right to tax
and make laws for the colonies
“in all cases whatsoever.” (Just a
reminder to the colonists of who
the boss was!)
More taxes…
The Townshend Acts/Duties
• Taxes on colonial imports (indirect taxes paid by
merchants, not direct taxes on consumer
goods) of tea, glass, paint, & paper – items the
colonies bought from GB
• The revenue from these taxes was used to pay
the Crown officials in the colonies. Prior to this
act, the salaries of the royal governors were
paid by the colonial legislatures/assemblies
which gave the colonies control over them.
• Also included writs of assistance – search
warrants with no restrictions were
issued; later influenced the 4th
Amendment
Colonial Reaction:
• In his Letters From a Farmer in
Pennsylvania, John Dickinson (PA) agreed
that Parliament could regulate commerce
but not without the consent of the
colonists; that the principle of no taxation
without representative was an essential
principle of English law.
• The Massachusetts Circular Letter (James
Otis & Samuel Adams) urging the colonies
to petition Parliament to repeal these
Acts. GB responded by increasing the
number of Redcoats in Boston.
• Colonists again boycotted & smuggled
goods.
• Act was repealed except for the Tea Tax
(was cheaper for the colonists to buy than
to buy tea from the Dutch) which the
colonists boycotted.
More conflict…
• Boston Massacre
• Committees of Correspondence were
formed to inform the colonists about
suspicious or potentially threating
British activities.
• The Gaspee – a British customs ship
that had caught a number of
smugglers. The vessel went aground
off the shore of RI. A group disguised
as Native Americans ordered the
British crew ashore & then set fire to
the ship.
• Boston Tea Party: mixed feelings
among the colonists. Some justified it
as a defense of liberty while others
though the destruction of private
property was far too radical.
• Coercive Acts – passed to punish
Boston for the “tea party.” Called
“Intolerable” by the colonists because
it closed the port of Boston (hurt their
trade), allowed any British official
accused of a crime to be tried in
England instead of the colonies, and
expanded the Quartering Act to
include all 13 colonies!
• Quebec Act – established Catholicism
in Quebec and all of Canada and
extended its boundary to the Ohio
River. Colonists viewed this act as a
direct attack because it took away
land, took away representative
government, and Protestant
Americans resented the recognition
given to Catholicism.
Individual Activity
•Create a chart comparing the
Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts,
the Tea Act, and the Coercive
Acts, emphasizing British goals
and colonial reactions.
Philosophical Foundations of the American
Revolution
• There was a long tradition of loyalty to the king
and Great Britain. As the differences between
the colonists and Britain grew, many Americans
tried to justify this changing relationship.
• The Enlightenment, particularly the writings of
John Locke, had a profound influence on the
colonies.
Enlightenment Ideas
Review:
Many Enlightenment thinkers were Deists, who believed that
God had established natural laws in creating the universe, but
that the role of divine intervention in human affairs was
minimal.
They believed in rationalism and trusted human reason to solve
the many problems of life and society, and emphasized reason,
science, and respect for humanity.
Their political philosophy, derived from Locke and Rousseau, had a
profound influence.
John Locke:
• known for natural rights—life, liberty, & property—
that no government can take away
• Also advocated the social contract theory—that
there is an implied contract between government &
citizens. People agree to give up certain freedoms
and empower government to maintain order,
meaning citizens submit themselves to laws &
governments in order to serve the common good
and cultivate civic virtue (behavior geared towards
the betterment of society rather than simply one’s
own interests).
• Locke believed that if a government failed to fulfill
its role, then the government should be replaced.
• Argued that government exists only by the
“consent of the governed” stated in the Declaration
of Independence and in the Preamble to the US
Constitution
• His views were used by many to justify the American
Revolution.
• ROUSSEAU
• promoted equality, a principle
on which the Declaration of
Independence is based
1st Continental Congress
• Met in response to the Intolerable Acts
• All colonies sent delegates to Philadelphia, 1774,
except Georgia
• Purpose: to respond to what the delegates viewed as
Britain’s alarming threats to their liberties
• Were not seeking independence
• Simply wanted to protest parliamentary infringements
of their rights and restore the relationship with the
crown that had existed before the French & Indian War
Delegates at the
• Patrick Henry
• Samuel Adams
• John Adams
• George Washington
• John Dickinson
• John Jay
st
1
CC
Actions of the 1st CC
1. Endorsed the Suffolk Resolves that called for the immediate repeal
of the Intolerable Acts and for colonies to resist them by making
military preparations and boycotting British goods.
2. Passed the Declaration of Rights and Grievances that urged the
king to redress (make right) colonial grievances and restore colonial
rights; also recognized Parliament’s authority to regulate
commerce.
3. Created the Continental Association (or just Association), a
network of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the
Suffolk Revolves.
4. Declared that if colonial rights were not recognized, delegates
would meet again in May 1775.
Fighting Begins
First Battles of the Revolutionary War:
• Lexington and Concord
- British troops were sent to seize colonial military supplies in Concord.
- Paul Revere and William Dawes warned the colonists of the British march.
- The militia or minutemen of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the
British but were forced to retreat; 8 were killed.
- The British entered Concord and destroyed some military supplies. As the British
left Concord they were attacked by hundreds of militiamen; 250 British casualties
• Bunker Hill (or Breed’s Hill)
- First major battle
- Took the British 3 attempts before they took the hill
- Showed the war would not be short; boosted the morale of the
Americans
2nd Continental Congress
• The congress was divided between New Englanders who thought the
colonists should declare their independence and the middle colonies who
wanted to negotiate a new relationship with Britain.
Military actions:
- Adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms
- Called on the colonies to provide troops
- Appointed George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the new
Continental Army
- Authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec to draw Canada
away from the British empire
- An American navy and marine corps was organized in 1775 for the
purpose of attacking British shipping
Peace Efforts
• Sent an “Olive Branch Petition” to King George III in which they
pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament
to secure peace and the protection of their colonial rights.
• King George dismissed this plea and agreed to Parliament’s
Prohibitory Act which declared the colonies in rebellion and forbade
all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies.
Thomas Paine
• Published a pamphlet, Common Sense, urging independence from
Britain; argued that it was contrary to common sense for a large
continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for the
colonists to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was
corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable.
 The Declaration of Independence
• Richard Henry Lee of VA introduced a resolution declaring
independence.
• 5 delegates including Thomas Jefferson formed a committee to write
a statement supporting Lee’s resolution.
• Drafted by Jefferson, it listed grievances against George III’s
government and expressed the basic principles that justified
revolution: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable rights: that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit
of Happiness.”
• Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776.
The Revolutionary War
• As Americans fought they also forged a new national identity, as the
former colonies became the United States of America.
• 40% of the population actively participated in the fight for
independence – “Patriots”
• 20-30% sided with Britain – “Loyalists”
• Everyone else tried to remain neutral and uninvolved.
Patriots
• Mainly from New England & Virginia
• Washington’s Army: no more than 20,000 regular troops at any one
time; short of supplies, poorly equipped, rarely paid
• Washington initially rejected allowing African Americans to serve in
the Patriot army but when the British promised freedom to enslaved
people who joined their side, Washington and congress made the
same offer. 5000 African Americans fought as Patriots. Most were free
citizens from the North who fought in mixed racial forces although
there were some all-African American units
Loyalists
• Tories – those colonists who maintained their allegiance to the king; refers
to the majority party in Parliament
• About 60,000 fought but about 520,000-780,000 called themselves Loyalists
• Benjamin Franklin was a Patriot but his son, William, joined the Tories and
served as the last royal governor of NJ.
• Most lived in NY, NJ, SC, GA
• About 80,000 left the US to live in Canada or Britain before the war ended
rather than face persecution from the Patriots
• Were wealthy conservatives; included government officials and Anglican
clergy
• American Indians – tried to stay out of the war but attacks by colonists
prompted many to support the British who promised to limit colonial
settlements in the West.
Alliance with France
• TURNING POINT – Battle of Saratoga – Colonists defeated the British.
The French allied itself with the Patriots. A year later Spain and
Holland also entered the war on the side of the Patriots.
• The French alliance provide a decisive factor in the American struggle
for independence because it widened the war and forced the British
to divert military resources away from America.
Victory
• Yorktown: the last major battle (VA) – Washington’s army forced the
surrender of a large British army under General Charles Cornwallis
• Treaty of Paris 1783:
1. Britain would recognize the existence of the US as an independent
nation.
2. The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of the US.
3. Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada.
4. Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor
Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war.
The new government of the United States
• The Articles of Confederation – formed while the war was being
fought – the first written constitution of the US.
Details of this government:
Colonies became “states” and each wrote its own constitution that
included a list of rights, separation of powers (for most states), voting
rights to all white males who owned property (land or money) and
office-holding (usually a higher property qualification than the voters).
The Articles of Confederation (AOC)
• John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the US. Congress modified his plan to
protect the powers of the individual states.
• Adopted in 1777
Structure of the new government:
• A central government that consisted of one branch (unicameral legislature) –
Congress.
• Each state had one vote regardless of its size.
• 9/13 votes required to pass laws.
• Unanimous consent to amend (change) the AOC.
• The central government could wage war, make treaties, send diplomats to
other countries, and borrow money. It COULD NOT regulate commerce or
TAX!
• To pay for anything, this congress had to rely upon taxes voted by each state.
AOC Accomplishments:
1. Won the war
2. Negotiated the Treaty of Paris 1783
3. Land Ordinance of 1785 – established a policy for surveying and
selling the western lands which provided for setting aside one
section of land in each township for public education.
4. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – set the rules for creating new states
in the NW Territory; granted limited self-government to the
territory and prohibited slavery in the region.
Problems with the Articles
1. Create a weak central government and strong state governments.
2. Financial: Most war debts went unpaid. States and the congress
issued worthless paper money. Congress had no taxing power and
could only request that the states donate money for national needs.
(requisition)
3. Foreign: European nations had little respect for a new nation that
could neither pay its debts nor take effective and united action in a
crisis. Britain and Spain threatened to take advantage of the weak
US by expanding their interests in the western lands soon after the
war ended.
4. Domestic: In the summer of 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a
Massachusetts farmer, led other farmers in a rebellion against high
state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. The
rebel farmers stopped the collection of taxes and forced the closing
of debtors’ courts. Attempted to seize weapons from the Springfield
Problems with the Articles
4. Domestic: In the summer of 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a
Massachusetts farmer, led other farmers in a rebellion against
high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper
money. The rebel farmers stopped the collection of taxes and
forced the closing of debtors’ courts. Attempted to seize
weapons from the Springfield armory and the state militia of
Massachusetts had to stop the rebellion.
Shay’s Rebellion proved the AOC was too weak and a new plan of
government needed to be written.
Social Change
1. Abolition of Aristocratic Titles: Congress cannot grant titles of
nobility (US Constitution); the end of primogeniture (the first born
son’s right to inherit his family’s property).
2. Separation of Church and State: The Anglican Church, which
formerly had been closely tied to the king’s government, was
disestablished (lost state support) in the South. Only in NH, CT, and
MA did the Congregational Church continue to receive state
support in the form of a religious tax which was discontinued in the
early 1830s.
3. Women: served as nurses, cooks, and in a few instances, fought in
battle (Mary McCauley, Molly Pitcher) or as a soldier (Deborah
Sampson). Their most important contribution during the war was in
maintaining the colonial economy – ran the family farms and
businesses. Remained second-class citizens after the war.
Social Change
3. Women: served as nurses, cooks, and in a few instances, fought in battle
(Mary McCauley, Molly Pitcher) or as a soldier (Deborah Sampson). Their
most important contribution during the war was in maintaining the
colonial economy – ran the family farms and businesses. Remained
second-class citizens after the war. Abigail Adams pleaded with her
husband, John Adams, “I desire you would remember the ladies and be
more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.”
4. Slavery: contradicted the spirit of the Revolution and the idea that “all
men are created equal.” The importation of slaves was abolished (by
1808). Most northern states ended slavery, some southern plantation
owners freed their slaves. However, in the decades that followed the
war, more slaveowners came to believe that slaves were essential to
their economy and developed a rationale for slavery that found religious
and political justifications.
The Constitution and the New Republic: 1787-1800
THE US UNDER THE ARTICLES, 1781-1787
• 1-house congress, no separate executive, no separate judiciary (court
system).
Foreign Problems:
• States failed to adhere to the Treaty of Paris which required them to
restore property to Loyalists and repay debts to foreigners.
• US government under the AOC was too weak to stop Britain from
maintaining military outposts on the western frontier (“Old” NW) and
restricting trade.
Economic Weakness & Interstate Quarrels
• Reduced foreign trade and limited credit because states had not fully
repaid war debts contributed to widespread economic depression.
• The inability to levy (collect) taxes and the printing of worthless
money by many states added to the problems.
• States placed tariffs (taxes) and other restrictions on the movement
of goods across state lines.
• Boundary disputes between states also was a problem.
The Annapolis Convention
• Only 5 states sent delegates to Maryland.
• Decision made to hold another convention in Philadelphia for the
purpose of revising the AOC.
Drafting the Constitution at Philadelphia
• 55 delegates from all states attended except RI who did not trust the
other states.
• All delegates were white, male, most were college-educated, young,
wealthy (with a few exceptions)
• Elected a presiding officer – George Washington (unanimously
chosen)
• Decided that what was decided during the convention would be kept
secret from the public.
• James Madison, who became known as the Father of the
Constitution, helped to put the ideas from the delegates into words.
Key Issues:
Decision made not to revise the AOC, but to write a new plan – the US
Constitution.
1. Create a strong national government based on checks and balances.
2. Representation: combined the idea of representation based on
population from the “Virginia/Madison Plan” (favored large states)
and equal representation from “the New Jersey/Patterson Plan”
(favored small states) into the “Great Compromise” (Connecticut
Plan) – a two-house legislature (bicameral) with representation in
the House of Representatives based on population and equal
representation in the Senate (2 per state).
3. Slavery: Three-fifths Compromise – which counted each slave as
3/5th of a person for the purposes of determining a state’s level of
taxation and representation. This would maintain equal power in
Congress between the North and the South. Also decided to
guarantee the importation of slavery for 20 more years, until 1808.
4. Trade: The “Commercial Compromise” allowed Congress to regulate
interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs (taxes) on
foreign imports, but prohibited placing taxes on exports.
5. The Presidency: limited the president’s term to 4 years with no limit
on the number of terms; decided a president would be elected
through an Electoral College (voters vote indirectly for the
president).
6. Ratification: Approval of the US Constitution only required 9 of the
13 states but in time, all 13 voted for it.
Federalists and Antifederalists
Federalists:
• Supported a strong central (national, federal) government
• New Englanders, people who lived in large cities, educated, wealthy
• Wrote the Federalist Papers (85 essays) to gain support (ratification)
for the US Constitution, written by James Madison, Alexander
Hamilton, & John Jay
• Promised to add a Bill of Rights (required for the anti-federalists to
ratify the Constitution)
Antifederalists:
• Feared a strong central government
• Supported states’ rights
• Southerners and westerners, farmers
Adding the Bill of Rights
Arguments for:
• Needed in order to protect the rights of the people from their
government
• Needed in order to ratify the Constitution
• Consists of the first 10 amendments originally to protect the people
against abuses of power by the federal government; later
amendments would be added to protect the people against abuses of
power by state governments
Arguments against:
• Federalists argued that since members of Congress would be elected
by the people, they did not need to be protected against themselves.
• People should assume that all rights were protected rather than
create a limited list of rights that might be taken to mean that
unlisted rights could be violated.
Amendments as they relate to colonial experiences
1st Amendment – freedom of speech and of the press – Zenger Trial
3rd Amendment – a result of the Quartering Act
4th Amendment – a result of the writs of assistance
9th Amendment – We the people have more rights than just those
listed in Amendments 1-8.
10th Amendment – powers of the States
Washington’s Presidency
• George Washington was unanimously elected by the electoral college.
• Washington established a Cabinet, a precedent all future presidents
would follow, to help him govern the nation.
• 4 departments were created:
1. State Department with Thomas Jefferson as the Secretary of State
2. Department of the Treasury with Alexander Hamilton as Secretary
of the Treasury
3. War Department with Henry Knox as Secretary of War
4. Edmund Randolph as attorney general (later the Department of
Justice)
Federal Court System
• The only federal court mentioned in the Constitution is the Supreme
Court.
• One of Congress’ first laws was the Judiciary Act of 1789 which
established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and 5 associate
justices.
Hamilton’s Financial Program
• As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton had the task of paying off the
debt from the Revolutionary War.
• His economic plans included:
1. Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal
government assume the war debts of the states.
2. Protect the nation’s “infant” (new and developing) industries and
collect revenues at the same time by imposing protective tariffs
(taxes on imported goods).
3. Create a national bank for depositing government funds and
printing banknotes that would provide the basis for a stable US
currency.
Supporters: northern merchants
Opponents: Anti-Federalists, Thomas Jefferson, farmers
Debt
• To gain support for paying off the national debt and assuming states’
debts, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson’s idea to establish the nation’s
capital in the South along the Potomac River – Washington, DC.
National Bank
• Jefferson was against the bank because he said it was
unconstitutional (not mentioned in the Constitution). Jefferson took a
strict (literal) interpretation of the Constitution.
• Hamilton took a “loose” interpretation of the Constitution, using the
“necessary and proper” clause in the Constitution that authorized
Congress to do whatever was necessary to carry out its enumerated
powers.
• Washington supported Hamilton and the First Bank of the US was
established.
Foreign Affairs
1. The French Revolution
Jefferson was pro-French and believed the US should support France
but when the French beheaded their king, Americans turned against
the French. When war broke out between France and Britain in 1793,
Washington issued a Proclamation of Neutrality which caused Jefferson
to resign from the Cabinet.
2 “Citizen” Genet – French minister to the US ignored the Proclamation
and appealed directly to the American people to support the French.
Washington requested the French government to remove Genet as a
diplomat. Because he would have been killed if he returned to France,
Genet was allowed to remain in the US where he married and became
a US citizen.
3. Jay’s Treaty, 1794
• Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay to talk Britain out of its offensive practice
of searching and seizing American ships and impressing sailors into the British
navy.
• Jay was able to get the British to agree to evacuate its posts on the US western
frontier (NW) but no agreement was made on seizures of American merchant
ships.
• The point of the treaty was to avoid going to war against Britain.
• Angered American supporters of France but maintained Washington’s policy
of neutrality.
4. Pinckney’s Treaty, 1795
* Spain agreed to allow Americans the right of deposit at the Port of New
Orleans which would give them control of the Mississippi River without having
to pay duties to the Spanish government. Spain also agreed to accept the US
claim that Florida’s northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel.
Domestic Concerns
1. Native Americans (Northwest Confederacy)
• Resisted westward expansion
• Were being supplied guns by the British
• 1794, the US Army led by General Anthony Wayne defeated the Confederacy tribes at the
Battle of Fallen Timbers, OH.
• Result: Treaty of Greenville 1795 which gave the US present-day Ohio
2. Whiskey Rebellion, 1794
• Hamilton persuaded Congress to pass excise taxes – on whiskey
• Farmers in PA rebelled and attacked revenue collectors
• Washington responded by federalizing 15,000 state militiamen.
• This show of force caused the Whiskey Rebellion to collapse, proving that
creating a strong central government under the Constitution was justified.
3. Western Lands
* Public Land Act, 1796 – passed in response to the land gained in the
Jay Treaty and the victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. This act
established orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at
reasonable prices. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee became states.
Political Parties
• Political Parties are not mentioned in the Constitution.
• The Framers of the Constitution assumed no political parties would form.
Origins of Political Parties
The rise of factions – groups with opposing political views. Ex: Federalists,
Antifederalists
Political Parties began to form around the political beliefs of Hamilton and
Jefferson.
The Federalists supported Hamilton & his financial program. Those who opposed
Hamilton’s financial plan became known as the Democratic-Republican party.
The French Revolution further solidified the formation of national political
parties. Americans were sharply divided over whether to support France. A
large number of them followed Jefferson’s lead in openly challenging President
Washington’s neutrality policy.
Differences Between the Parties
Federalists:
• Strongest in the northeastern states
• Advocated the growth of federal power
Democratic-Republicans:
• Strongest in the southern states and on the western frontier
• Argued for states’ rights
Washington’s Farewell Address
He warned Americans:
1. Not to get involved in European affairs
2. Not to make “permanent alliances” in foreign matters
3. Not to form political parties
4. Not to fall into sectionalism
John Adams
• Election of 1796
Adams (Federalist) v. Jefferson (D-R)
Results: Adams voted in as President
Jefferson voted in as VP
Two different political parties in office!
The XYZ Affair
• US merchant ships were being sized by French warships & privateers.
• Adams sent a delegation to Paris to negotiate with the French government.
• Certain French ministers, known only as X, Y, and Z because their names
were never revealed, requested bribes as the basis for entering into
negotiations. The American delegates refused.
• Newspaper reports of the demands made by X, Y, and Z angered many
Americans who called for war against France.
• “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute” became the federalist
slogan
• One faction of the Federalist party, led by Alexander Hamilton, hoped to go
to war to gain French and Spanish lands in North America.
• Adams resisted the popular sentiment for war, recognizing the US Army
and Navy were not yet strong enough to fight a major power.
Alien and Sedition Acts
• Federalists passed these acts to restrict their political opponents, the
Democratic-Republicans.
• Ex: Most immigrants voted D-R so the Federalists passed the
Naturalization Act which increased from 5 to 14 years required for
immigrants to qualify for US citizenship.
• They also passed the Alien Acts which authorized the president to
deport aliens considered dangerous and to detain enemy aliens in
time of war.
• Most seriously, they passed the Sedition Act, which made it illegal for
newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and
imposed fines or imprisonment for editors who violated the law.
The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
• Democratic-Republicans argued that the Alien and Sedition Acts
violated rights guaranteed by the 1st Amendment.
• D-R responded with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (written by
Jefferson & Madison) that stated that the states had entered into a
“compact” in forming the national government, and therefore, if any
act of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify
the federal law.
• Introduced the doctrine of nullification which would be used in the
Nullification Crisis in the 1830s
Election of 1800
Adams v. Jefferson
Outcome: a tie between Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr.
Election decided by the House of Representatives
Jefferson became president and Burr became VP
The Federalists lost power; not only was the President a D-R, but
Congress was also dominated by D-R.
A peaceful Revolution
• The Election of 1800 is also referred to as the “Revolution of 1800.”
• Political power was passed from the Federalists to the D-R peacefully.