CHAPTER 11,
COMPARATIVE AND
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Chapter Outline





Content Analysis
Analyzing Existing Statistics
Comparative and Historical Research
Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures
Quick Quiz

Unobtrusive Research – Methods of
studying social behavior without
affecting it.
 Example:
 Types
1.
2.
3.
Durkheim’s analysis of suicide
of Unobtrusive Research
Content Analysis
Analysis of Existing Statistics
Comparative and Historical Analysis
Content Analysis

Content Analysis – The study of
recorded human communications (i.e.,
books, websites, paintings, laws).
 Appropriate
 “Who
Topics
says what, to whom, why, how, and with
what effect?”

Example: violence on TV
1.
2.
3.
Develop operational definitions
Decide what to observe
Decide how to code/analyze data
Figure 11.1

Sampling in Content Analysis
 Units
of Analysis

Identify the unit of analysis:

You are interested in how children’s literature
portrays gender roles.

You are interested in popular film’s use of drugs and
alcohol.

You are interested in sociology textbook’s definition
of race.

You are interested in the content of Internet Blogs.
Figure 11.2
 Sampling
 Any
Techniques
conventional sampling technique may be
used for content analysis.

Coding in Content Analysis
 Coding
– The process whereby raw data are
transformed into standardized form suitable
for machine processing and analysis.
 Manifest
Content – The concrete terms
contained in a communication.
 Latent
Content – The underlying meaning
of communication.
Figure 11.3
 Conceptualization
Categories
and the Creation of Code
 Operational
Definition
 Levels of Measurement
 Counting
 The
and Record Keeping
end product of coding must be numerical.
 Record keeping must distinguish between units
of analysis and units of observation.
 Record from the base from which the counting
is done.
Figure 11.4
 Qualitative
 “Negative
 Tips
1.
2.
3.
4.
Data Analysis
Case Testing”
for Avoiding Dangers
Select cases at random
Provide at least three supporting examples
Ask others to review interpretations
Report inconsistencies

Illustrations of Content Analysis

Strengths of Content Analysis
Economy of time and money
 Allowing for the correction of errors
 Permits the study of processes occurring over
time
 Research has little (if any) effect on subjects
 Reliability


Weaknesses of Content Analysis
Limited to recorded communications
 Validity

Analyzing Existing Statistics




The analysis of existing statistics is not the
same as secondary analysis.
Existing statistics may be the main source
of data or a supplemental source of data.
Example: Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
Example: Kentor’s Consequences of
Globalization

Units of Analysis
 By
nature, existing statistics describe
groups.
 Ecological Fallacy

Problems of Validity
 Logical
Reasoning
 Replication

Problems of Reliability
 Quality
of Existing Statistics

Sources of Existing Statistics
 Statistical
Abstract of the United States
 Government Data
 Demographic Yearbook
 SINET
Comparative and Historical
Research

Comparative and Historical Research –
The examination of societies (or other
social units) over time and in
comparison with one another.

Examples of Comparative and Historical
Research
 Weber
and the Role of Ideas
 Japanese Religion and Capitalism

Sources of Comparative and Historical
Data
Figure 11.5

Analytic Techniques
Quick Quiz
1. Which type of research does not require
the researcher to intrude on what s/he
is studying?
A.
Quantitative Research
B.
Qualitative Research
C.
Survey Research
D.
Unobtrusive Research
Answer: D.
Unobtrusive research does not require the
researcher to intrude on what s/he is
studying?
2.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Which of the following may
examined in content analysis?
books
magazines
websites
all of the above
be
Answer: D.
Books, magazines, and websites may be
examined in content analysis.
3. Which of the following occurs when you
obtain a copy of someone else’s data and
undertake your own statistical analysis?
A. using quasi official statistics
B. using official statistics
C. secondary analysis
D. none of the above
Answer: C.
Secondary analysis occurs when you
obtain a copy of someone else’s data and
undertake your own statistical analysis.
4. Which of the following are types of
unobtrusive research methods?
A. content analysis
B. analysis of existing statistics
C. comparative and historical research
D. all of the above
Answer: D.
Content analysis, analysis of existing
statistics, and comparative and historical
research are types of unobtrusive research
methods.
5. Which of the following are usually
qualitative?
A. field research
B. comparative and historical research
C. both of the above
D. none of the above
Answer: C.
Field research and comparative and
historical research are usually qualitative.
6. _____ are the individual units that we
make
descriptive
and
explanatory
statements about.
A. Units of analysis
B. Artifacts
C. Groups
D. all of the above
Answer: A.
Units of analysis are the individual units
that we make descriptive and explanatory
statements about.
7. In the content analysis of _____,
sampling may occur at any or all of
several levels.
A. written prose
B. television
C. the Internet
Answer: A.
In the content analysis of written prose
sampling may occur at any or all of
several levels.
8. Existing statistics should always be
considered a _____ source of data.
A. primary
B. supplemental
C. tertiary
D. all of the above
E. none of the above
Answer: B.
Existing statistics should always be
considered a supplemental source of data.
9. When we base research on an analysis
of data that already exist, we face
problems of:
A. repeatability.
B. validity.
C. generalization.
Answer: B.
When we base research on an analysis of
data that already exist, we face problems
of validity.