Communication
Teams
Functions of Communication


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Control
Motivation
Emotional expression
Information
The Communication Process
Message
Sender
Message
Encoding
Message
Channel
Feedback
Message
Decoding
Receiver
Communication Channels

Formal channels
are established by
the organization and
transmit messages
that are related to
the professional
activities of
members


Informal channels
are spontaneous
and emerge as a
response to
individual choices
Personal and social
messages
Interpersonal Communication



Oral
Written
Non-verbal
Oral Communication

Advantages



Speed
Feedback
Disadvantages


Potential for distorted
message
Content at destination is
different from the original
Written Communication
Advantages




Provide a tangible and
verifiable record
Can be stored for an
indefinite period of time
Physically available for
later reference
Well thought-out, logical,
and clear
Disadvantages



Time consuming
Lack of feedback
No guarantee how
reader will interpret it
Non-verbal Communication
Two most important messages that body
language conveys are:
(1) the extent to which an individual likes
another and is interested in his views
(2) the relative perceived status between a
sender and receiver
Non-verbal Communication


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Intonations
Facial expression
Physical distance
Computer-aided Communication

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E-mail
Instant messaging
Intranet and Extranet links
Video-conferencing
Instant Messaging


Fast and inexpensive
means for managers to
stay in touch with
employees
No delay, no in-box clutter
of messages, and no
uncertainty as to whether
the message was
received
Knowledge Management

Process of organizing and distributing
an organization’s collective wisdom so
the right information gets to the right
people at the right time
Knowledge Management

Provides an organization with both a
competitive edge and improved
organizational performance
Knowledge Management


Intellectual assets are now as important
as physical or financial assets
As baby boomers begin to leave the
workforce, there’s an increasing
awareness that they represent a wealth
of knowledge that will be lost if there are
no attempts to capture it
Barriers to Effective Communication

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Filtering
Selective Perception
Information Overload
Gender Styles
Emotions
Language
In an ever-increasing global
economy, everyone needs to
communicate….
A Cultural Guide
1)
2)
3)
4)
Assume differences until similarity is proved
Emphasize description rather than
interpretation or evaluation
Practice empathy
Treat your interpretation as a working
hypothesis
Cultural Context

High-context cultures
- rely heavily on
nonverbal and subtle
situational cues when
communicating with
others

Low-context cultures
- rely essentially on
words to convey
meaning
Communication and cultural
competency

Communication is the sole process by which
humans acquire and transmit their individual
cultures (Jianglong Wang)
Communication and Cultural Context
(Edward Hall)

High-context cultures
- rely heavily on
nonverbal and subtle
situational cues when
communicating with
others

-e.g., Mexico

Low-context cultures
- rely essentially on
words to convey
meaning

e.g., England
Consider these facets of
communication

Martin Gannon (2001) wrote a book about cultural
metaphors that he believes represent 23 nations in the
world. e.g., “this is a team made in heaven”

"Do you like the class? " the Chinese English-speaker
often responds with: "I think so." To the Chinese, this
response is a very positive one; yet, to the American, the
response is lukewarm. Both the use and comprehension
of this particular comment in this situation require some
contextual knowledge. (Jianglong Wang)

Understand not just the language but the cultural
processes. This means having the knowledge of when to
say what to whom, and the appropriate manner of
speaking.
Barriers to Effective Communication
(Robbins)



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Filtering
Selective Perception
(e.g., SI Theory)
Information Overload
Emotions
Language/Lack of
cultural competency
Teaching cultural competency

Workshops to teach Japanese business
bows to Americans who go to Japan on
business ventures.


Japanese bows are more complicated than the
American handshake due to the various ways to
bow on various occasions to people of different
status and seniority.
Other useful examples?
Guidelines (Robbins)
1)
2)
3)
4)
Assume differences until similarity is proved
Emphasize description rather than
interpretation or evaluation
Practice empathy
Treat your interpretation as a working
hypothesis
Implications for Managers
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Use Multiple Channels
for Communication
Use Feedback
Simplify Language
Listen Actively
Constrain Emotions
Gain cultural
competency



Old Woman?
Or Young Girl?
Hint: The old
woman’s nose is
the young girl’s
chin,
Fundamental
attribution error –
(evaluating others)
tendency to
underestimate the
influence of external
factors and overestimate
the influence of internal
or personal factors
Self-serving bias –
(evaluating self)
tendency for individuals
to attribute their own
successes to internal
factors such as ability or
effort while putting the
blame for failure on
external factors such as
luck
Shortcuts to Judging Others
(Robbins)

Selectivity - choosing bits of data depending
on the interests, background, experience,
and attitudes of observer

Assumed Similarity - perceptions of others
more influenced by what the observer is like
or thinks
Shortcuts to Judging Others

Stereotyping - basing perception on group
membership or association

Halo Effect - drawing a general impression
on the basis of a single characteristic, such
as intelligence, sociability, or appearance
Communication Axioms




Assume differences until similarity is
proved
Emphasize description rather than
interpretation or evaluation
Treat your interpretation as a
working hypothesis
Practice empathy
Cross Cultural Communication

LaRay Barna identified 5 areas of potential
communication barriers



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Language
Nonverbal communications (different or rude)
Stereotypes
Evaluation of good or bad
High Levels of Stress
from Hofstede, G.J., Pedersen, P.B. & Hofstede, G., 2002, Exploring
culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Intercultural Press,
Boston
Non-verbal Communication
Two most important messages that body
language conveys are:
(1) the extent to which an individual likes
another and is interested in his views
(2) the relative perceived status between a
sender and receiver
Non-verbal Communication



Intonations
Facial expression
Physical distance
CAR Model



Context – What is the situation or context in
which you observed the behaviour(s) you
want to record or comment on.
Action – What did the person(s) you
observed actually do. Be sure to separate
this from your inference and beliefs
Reaction – How did you or other people
respond to this action
Computer Aided Communication





“Communication in today’s organizations is
enhanced and enriched by computer-aided
technologies” Robbins, pg 144
Do you agree?
Email?
IM?
Others?
Knowledge Management

Process of organizing and distributing
an organization’s collective wisdom so
the right information gets to the right
people at the right time
Knowledge Management



Intellectual assets are now as important as
physical or financial assets
Provides an organization with both a
competitive edge and improved
organizational performance
As baby boomers begin to leave the
workforce, there’s an increasing awareness
that they represent a wealth of knowledge
that will be lost if there are no attempts to
capture it
Cross Cultural Communication

Culture Shock?






Familiar cues about how others are supposed to
behave are missing or have a different meaning
Values that you consider good, desirable, beautiful
and worthy are not respected by the host
Feelings of disorientation, anxiety, depressed or
hostile
Dissatisfaction with new ways
Socials skills do not seem to work any longer
A sense that this will never go away.
from Hofstede, G.J., Pedersen, P.B. & Hofstede, G., 2002, Exploring
culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Intercultural Press,
Boston
Cross Cultural Communication

Stages in Culture Shock





Honeymoon
Disorientation
Irritability and hostility
Adjustment and integration
Biculturality
from Hofstede, G.J., Pedersen, P.B. & Hofstede, G., 2002, Exploring
culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Intercultural Press,
Boston
Cross Cultural Communication



It is always better to keep the peace than to
say what you think.
Everyone should say what they believe.
Which is correct?
from Hofstede, G.J., Pedersen, P.B. & Hofstede, G., 2002, Exploring
culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Intercultural Press,
Boston
Groups


Two or more individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who come together to
achieve particular objectives
Formal or informal
Four Types of Groups

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Command
Task
Interest
Friendship
Why Do People Join Groups?
Basic Group Concepts
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Roles
Norms
Status
Cohesiveness
Size
Composition
Roles

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Psychological Contract
Sets out mutual expectations
Norms

Acceptable standards of behavior
within a group
that are adopted
and shared by
the group’s
members
Examples of Cards Used
in Asch Study
X
A
B
C
Conformity and the Asch Studies



Demonstrated that subjects conformed in
about 35% of the trials
Members desire to be one of the group and
avoid being visibly different
Members with differing opinions feel
extensive pressure to align with others
Symptoms of Groupthink


Group members rationalize any resistance
to their assumptions
Members pressure any doubters to
support the alternative favored by the
majority
Symptoms of Groupthink


Doubters keep silent about misgivings and
minimize their importance
Group interprets members’ silence as a “yes”
vote for the majority
Variables Influencing Groupthink

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Group’s cohesiveness
Leader’s behavior
Insulation from outsiders
Time pressures
Failure to follow methodical decision-making
procedures
Groupshift

Decision of the group reflects
the dominant
decision-making
norm that develops
during the group’s
discussion
Jerry Harvey’s Story



What’s likely to happen?
How was the decision made?
Who wanted to go to Abilene?
Abilene Paradox



Author: Harvey, Jerry B.
Title: The Abilene paradox and other
meditations on management
Published: Lexington, Mass. : Lexington
Books ; San Diego, Calif. : University
Associates, c1988.
Stages of Group Formation

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Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Ending
Forming

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Creation of group
Getting to know each other
Developing expectations
Storming

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Establishing boundaries
Who will lead/ control
How will conflicts be settled
Norming

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Agree as a group to rules and limits
Define what the task is
Determine who will complete what parts
Establish how influence/discipline will operate
Performing

All ancillary components cleared away – now
can focus on the task
Ending


Not in every model
Recognize the need to get closure when
things end
Use of Outside Products

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
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Tools are useful, but the way of organizing
the world is the real value
Self-Assessment, Organization culture and
MBTI from previous classes
Today FIRO-B®
Other tools for decision making and change
Using this approach to understand what your
are dealing with is essential to developing
strategic organizations.
®
Overview of FIRO-B





Developed by Will Schutz.
Was originally created as a means to select
submarine crews.
Concerned about motivation to engage in social
behavior.
Decided that these motivations were derived from
needs.
Instrument owned and published by Consulting
Psychologist Press.
®
The FIRO-B Model

Three basic interpersonal needs

Need to be a part of the group –
Inclusion

Need to be in control of the situation and others –
Control

Need to be liked and feel close to others -
Affection
®
The FIRO-B Model

Not simply the need but what you do with it.
There are two types of need:

Those you show to others, that can be observed
by people watching you –
expressed

Those that you are aware of but typically do not
show - Need to be in control of the situation and
others – wanted
®
FIRO-B Scoring

Put the data into a matrix with the need across the
top and the expressed vs. wanted on the side.
Inclusion
Control
Affection
expressed
eI
eC
eA
wanted
wI
wC
wA
®
FIRO-B Scoring
• Low = I do this or respond this way
occasionally and selectively.
• Medium = I do this or respond this way
usually and with many people.
• High = I do this or respond this way very
frequently and with almost everyone.
Groups Evolve Through Particular
Stages Along the Dimensions of:
Inclusion — Control — Affection
Inclusion — early formation stage
• Where do I fit in?
• Do I want to be in or out?
• How committed will I become?
• How committed is our leader?
Control — mid-development
• Competition for leadership.
• What is the method for decision making?
• How will power be distributed?
Affection
How close shall I get if the group exists over long period of time?
Inclusion


Forming new relations, associating
with people
Extent of contact and prominence a
person seeks
Expressed:
Wanted:
To what extent do I include other people
in my activities (e.g., meetings,
discussions) and get them to include me
in theirs?
Low – Quiet - Very reserved -Difficult to
know
How much do I want others to include me
in their activities and invite me to
participate?
High – Engaging – Outgoing Connected
High - Need for acceptance - Hate to be
left out
Low – Private - Little concern for
popularity -
Typical Behavior for:
eI
HIGH
LOW
• Initiates contact
• Appears reserved
• Shows interest in others
• Seems restrained
• Likes to socialize
• Fact-oriented
• Group-oriented
• Doesn’t like to chit-chat
• Communicative
• Outgoing
Typical Behavior for:
wI
HIGH
LOW
• Fears being ignored or left out
• Seems self-sufficient
• Likes to be included
• Appears self-reliant
• Is easily slighted
• Likes to be alone
• Wants attention
• Doesn’t care to socialize
• Concern for recognition
• Desires status
Control


Decision making, influence, and persuasion
between people
Extent of power or dominance a person
seeks
Expressed:
Wanted:
How much control and influence do I exert
over things?
To what extent do I take charge and tell
others what to do?
How much control and influence do I want
others to have over me? How comfortable
am I with others telling me what to do?
Low - Flexible - Little interest in power –
Easygoing
High - Intense –Exacting - Dominant
Low – Independent - Rebellious - Prefers
autonomy
High - Compliant – Dependent Uncomfortable making decisions
Typical Behavior for:
eC
HIGH
LOW
• Likes to direct people
• Not power-oriented
• Makes decisions readily
• Non-directive
• Organizes self and others
• Prefers not to supervise others
• Seems confident
• Wants others to make their
own decisions
• Wants challenges
Typical Behavior for:
wC
HIGH
LOW
• Wants direction or guidance
• Appears independent
• Concerned about rules
• Works with, not for others
• Supports others
• Follows through on decisions
• Cooperative
• Rejects structure
• Methodical and orderly
• Wants structure
Affection
Emotional ties and warm connections between
people
 Extent of closeness a person seeks
Expressed:
Wanted:
To what extent do I act open, trusting,
and caring toward others?
How much do I want others to act open,
trusting,
and caring toward me?
Low – Businesslike - Aloof
Rational
-
High - Caring – Warm - Reassuring
Low - Distant - Closed – Cautious
High - Considerate – Approachable Sensitive
Typical Behavior for:
eA
HIGH
LOW
• Open and trusting
• Appears unfeeling
• Warm and friendly
• Seems calm and aloof
• Expresses feelings
• Appears objective and formal
• Gives acknowledgment
• Appears unemotional
• Shows support
• Shows encouragement
Typical Behavior for:
wA
HIGH
LOW
• Wants to be liked
• Appears guarded
• Wants others’ trust
• Not easy to know
• Concern for approval
• Can be direct and blunt
• Responds well to praise
• Seems invulnerable
• Easily hurt
• Appears cool and rational
• Takes criticism hard
The Hawthorne Studies

Concluded that a worker’s behavior and sentiments were
closely related

Group influences were significant in affecting individual
behavior.

Group standards were highly effective in establishing
individual worker output.

Money was less a factor in determining worker output
than were group standards, sentiments, and security.
Cohesiveness
The degree to which members
of the group are attracted to
each other and motivated to
stay in the group
Relationship of Cohesiveness
to Productivity
Cohesiveness
High
High
Low
Strong increase
in
productivity
Decrease
in
productivity
Low
Moderate increase
in
productivity
No significant
effect on
productivity
How Can Managers Encourage Cohesiveness?





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Make the group smaller
Encourage agreement on
group goals
Increase the time spent together
Increase the status and perceived difficulty of
group membership
Stimulate competition with other groups
Give rewards to the group rather than
members
Physically isolate the group
How Size Affects a Group



Smaller groups are faster at completing
tasks
Large groups are consistently better at
problem solving
Increases in group size are inversely
related to individual performance