Consumer Behavior,
Eighth Edition
SCHIFFMAN & KANUK
Chapter 4
The Consumer as an
Individual
4-1
Figure 4.1 Model of the Motivation
Process
Learning
Needs
wants,
and
desires
Tension
Drive
Behavior
Cognitive
processes
Tension
reduction
4-2
Goal or
need
fulfillment
Types of Needs
• Innate Needs
– Physiological (or biogenic) needs that are
considered primary needs or motives
• Acquired needs
– Generally psychological (or psychogenic) needs
that are considered secondary needs or motives
4-3
Goals
• Generic Goals
– the general categories of goals that consumers
see as a way to fulfill their needs
– e.g., “I want to get a graduate degree.”
• Product-Specific Goals
– the specifically branded products or services
that consumers select as their goals
– e.g., “I want to get an MBA in Marketing from
Kellogg School of Management.”
4-4
The Selection of Goals
• The goals selected by an individual depend
on their:
–
–
–
–
4-5
Personal experiences
Physical capacity
Prevailing cultural norms and values
Goal’s accessibility in the physical and social
environment
Figure 4.3
Achieving
Goals by
Subscribing
to a Magazine
4-6
Figure 4.4 Different Appeals for
Same Goal Object
4-7
Motivations and Goals
• Positive Motivation • Negative Motivation
– A driving force
– A driving force
toward some
away from some
object or condition
object or condition
• Approach Goal
• Avoidance Goal
– A positive goal
toward which
behavior is directed
4-8
– A negative goal from
which behavior is
directed away
Rational Versus Emotional
Motives
• Rationality implies that consumers select
goals based on totally objective criteria such
as size, weight, price, or miles per gallon
• Emotional motives imply the selection of
goals according to personal or subjective
criteria
4-9
The Dynamic Nature of
Motivation
• Needs are never fully satisfied
• New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied
• People who achieve their goals set new and
higher goals for themselves
4-10
Figure 4.6 New and Higher Goals
Motivate Behavior
4-11
Figure 4.7
Changing
Consumer
Needs
4-12
Frustration
4-13
Failure to achieve a
goal may result in
frustration. Some
adapt; others adopt
defense mechanisms
to protect their ego.
Defense
Mechanism
4-14
Methods by which
people mentally
redefine frustrating
situations to protect
their self-images and
their self-esteem.
Table 4.2 Defense Mechanisms
•
•
•
•
4-15
Aggression
Rationalization
Regression
Withdrawal
•
•
•
•
Projection
Autism
Identification
Repression
Arousal of Motives
•
•
•
•
4-16
Physiological arousal
Emotional arousal
Cognitive arousal
Environmental arousal
Figure 4.8
Cognitive
Need
Arousal
4-17
Philosophies Concerned With
Arousal of Motives
• Behaviorist School
– Behavior is response to stimulus
– Elements of conscious thoughts are to be
ignored
– Consumer does not act, but reacts
• Cognitive School
– Behavior is directed at goal achievement
– Need to consider needs, attitudes, beliefs, etc.
in understanding consumer behavior
4-18
Figure 4.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
(Self-fulfillment)
Ego Needs
(Prestige, status, self esteem)
Social Needs
(affection, friendship, belonging)
Safety and Security Needs
(Protection, order, stability)
4-19
Physiological Needs
(Food, water, air, shelter, sex)
Table 4.3 Murray’s List of
Psychogenic Needs
Needs Associated with Inanimate Objects:
Acquisition, Conservancy, Order, Retention, Construction
Needs Reflecting Ambition, Power,
Accomplishment, and Prestige:
Superiority, Achievement, Recognition, Exhibition, Infavoidance
Needs Connected with Human Power:
Dominance, Deferrence, Similance, Autonomy, Contrariance
4-20
Table 4.3 Murray’s List of
Psychogenic Needs
Sado-Masochistic Needs :
Aggression, Abasement
Needs Concerned with Affection between People:
Affiliation, Rejection, Nurturance, Succorance, Play
Needs Concerned with Social Intercourse:
Cognizance, Exposition
4-21
Figure 4.10 Appeal to Egoistic
Needs
4-22
Figure 4.11
Appeal to
SelfActualization
4-23
A Trio of Needs
• Power
– individual’s desire to control environment
• Affiliation
– need for friendship, acceptance, and belonging
• Achievement
– need for personal accomplishment
– closely related to egoistic and self-actualization
needs
4-24
Figure 4.12
Appeal to
Power Needs
4-25
Figure 4.13
Appeal to
Affiliation
Needs
4-26
Figure 4.14
Appeal to
Achievement
Needs
4-27
Motivational
Research
4-28
Qualitative research
designed to uncover
consumers’
subconscious or hidden
motivations.
Consumers are not
always aware of, or
may not wish to
recognize, the basic
reasons underlying their
actions.