Introduction to Psychology
Language and Thought
Language
• A language is a system of symbols, sounds,
meanings, and rules of combination that
allows for communication among humans
• Phonemes: the smallest units of sound
• Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning
• Phrases are composed of morphemes
• Sentences: strings of morphemes and
phrases that express a thought or intention
Nonverbal Communication
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Nonverbal communication includes:
vocal intonation
body language (crossed arms)
gestures (often involving the hands or fingers)
physical distance
facial expressions
touch
Language Development
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100 basic phonemes
Babbling (6 - 18 months)
Words (10 - 13 months)
Vocabulary spurt (18 – 24 months)
Receptive vs. productive vocabulary
Fast Mapping
Over and Under-extensions
Overregularizations
Language Development
• The case for nurture: (behaviorist)
• B.F. Skinner argued that children imitate the
utterances of their parents
• Skinner suggests that children receive differential
reinforcement for speech sounds
• The case for nature (Nativist)
• Chomksy argued that language acquisition appears
to be universal across culture (could not be
accounted for by learning)
• Interactionist
Critical Periods for Language
Acquisition
• Critical periods assume that an organism must
develop a function within a limited time frame or
it will not develop at all
• Children easily learn second languages, adults
have great difficulty
• Isolated children have language impairments:
• Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to
learn complex language as an adolescent
Problem Solving
• Problem solving refers to the process by which we
transform one situation into another to meet a goal
• Problems vary by definition:
– Well-defined versus ill-defined
• Strategies of problem solving:
– Algorithms are systematic procedures that will produce a
solution to a problem
– Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a
problem; then test it
– Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed
to solve a problem
© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Problem Solving: Barriers
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Irrelevant information
Functional fixedness
Mental set
Unnecessary constraints
Approaches to Problem Solving
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Algorithms
Heuristics
Forming sub-goals
Working backward
Searching for Analogies
Changing the representation of the problem
Finding Order in Random
Events: The Hot Hand
• Basketball players estimate they are 25% more
likely to hit a basket after they have sunk one the
shot before
• The opposite is true: players were 6% more likely
to sink a basket after a miss than a hit
• Streaks are simply random sequences expected by
the laws of probability
• Gambler’s Fallacy
• Illusory Correlations
The Base Rate Fallacy
• Fear of flying vs. driving
• Anthrax vs. influenza
• SARS vs. viral encephalitis
The Impact of Vivid Events
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Which of the following are more frequent causes
of death in Canada?
Homicide or Diabetes
Flood or Pneumonia
All accidents or Stroke
All cancers or heart disease
Tornados or Alzheimer’s disease
Drowning or Leukemia
Motor vehicle accidents or cancer of the
digestive system
Regression Toward the Average
• Rookie of the year rarely has a better
second season
• Sports Illustrated Jinx