SNC2D REVIEW
Please Note: I did not teach this current class so I
do not know what your teacher may have focused
on.
This review is an overview and does not cover
specific details.
This does not included everything that you may
have covered and may include things you did not
cover.
STUDY TIPS
Review and correct old tests. Try rewriting them.
 Go over unit review questions and self quiz
sections
 Go over notes and make study notes.
 Write out key terms from each unit.

Chemistry Review
SNC2D
Classification of matter
Matter
Pure
Substance
Compound
Mixture
Element
Homogeneous
Mixture
Heterogeneous
Mixture
Particle Theory
1.
2.
3.
4.
All Matter is made up of extremely tiny
particles
Each Pure substance has its own kind of
particles, different from the particles of other
pure substances
Particles are always moving. Particles at a
higher temperature are generally moving
faster, on average than particles at a lower
temperature.
Particles attract each other
Physical Properties
Solid
 retain their shape.
 Have a fixed
volume
Liquid
Gases
 Liquids take the shape  Gases take the shape
of their containers
of the containers
 Have a fixed volume  Volume can change.
Chemical Properties
1. Combustibility is the ability of a substance
to burn. In order to burn a substance
requires Oxygen
Chemical Properties

Light sensitivity is a chemical property of
that can cause new substances to form
when light hits it.
Chemical Properties
3. Reacting with an acid is a chemical
property where when acid is poured on a
substance it produces a gas and bubbles.
Physical changes


In a physical change, the substance involved
remains the same. The substance may change
form or state, however. All changes of state are
physical changes.
There are other physical changes that are not
changes of state. Dissolving is a physical change.
When sugar is dissolved it spreads out in the water
but the sugar is still sugar. If the water was boiled
off there would be sugar left over. Most Physical
changes can be reversed.
Chemical changes

In a chemical Change the substance is changed into one or
more different substances. The new substances have
different properties from the original substance. Most
chemical changes are difficult to reverse and most cannot
be. The new substances are not likely to combine and form
the original substance.

Often during a chemical change you cannot see the change
that has occurred in the substance, but you can observe the
results of the change. There are clues that suggest that a
chemical change has taken place.
Clues that a chemical
change has occurred

Change in colour


Final product(s) may have a different colour than
the colours of the starting material(s).
Formation of a solid (precipitate)

Final materials may include a substance in a
state that differs from the staring material(s):
Precipitate
Clues that a chemical
change has occurred

Formation of a gas


Release or absorption of heat


Final materials may include a substance in a
state that differs from the staring material(s);
commonly, a gas
Energy (light, electricity, sound or most
commonly heat) is given off or absorbed.
The change cannot be reversed or it is
difficult to.
Important Features of the Table



The elements are also organized in two fashions
horizontal vertical and horizontal lines called
groups and periods.
Groups- elements with similar chemical properties in
a vertical column in the main part of the table;
Period – elements, arranged in a horizontal row,
whose properties change from metallic on the left to
non-metallic on the right






Metals- left side of the periodic table
The majority of elements on the periodic table are
metals. All metals, except for mercury are
solids at room temperature. Metals have the
following properties.
Malleable
Lustre
Ductile
Conductors






Non-Metals – Right side of the periodic table
Most of the remaining elements in the periodic table
are non-metals
Non-metals generally have these properties:
Non-conductor of electricity in its solid form
At room temperature most are gasses or solids
Solids are brittle and lack the lustre of metals



Metalloids- middle right of the periodic table
Some elements do not fit as metals or non-metals.
These fit on either side of the staircase that divides
the metals and the non-metals. They have some
properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals.
Group Names
Alkali Metals: First group in the periodic table.
 Soft, Silvery coloured solids.
 React violently with water.
 Most reactive metal family
Group Names



Alkaline earth metals: Second group in the periodic
table.
Light
React violently
Group Names




Transition metals: Theses metals have a wide variety
of properties and reactivates.
Hard,
Strong
Conduct electricity
Group Names




Representative elements: Groups 1,2 and 13-17.
Metals and non-metals
All states of matter found
Follow periodic law.
Group Names



Halogens: Non-metals in group 17.
Solids, liquids and gases
Extremely reactive.
Group Names




Noble gasses:
Gasses at room temperature.
Low MP and BP
Un-reactive
Elements and Atomic Structure




Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles
Protons- Heavy positively charged particle found in
the nucleus
Neutrons -are neutral particles that have the same
mass as protons and are located in the nucleus
Electrons- Negatively charged particles with
almost no mass. They circle the nucleus at different
energy levels.


The atomic number (Z) refers to the number of
protons that are located in the nucleus of the atom.
This number also provides the elements placement
on the periodic table. If the atom is electronically
neutral it will also contain the same number of
electrons.
( x number of (+ive) protons + x number of ( -ive)
electrons = 0 Charge
Bohr Diagrams

To represent electron arrangements at various orbits
we use Bohr diagrams. Each orbit has a set number
of electrons.
Orbit #
1
2
3
4
# of Electrons
2
8
8
18

Every row in the period contains a shell. The
farther you move down the table the more shells
you added to the diagram. H = 1 shell, Li = 2
shells, K = 3 shells.

Moving left to right on the periodic table adds
valence electrons to the shells of that row. Na has
1 valence e-, Mg has 2 valence e-, Al has 3
valence e-, etc.
how an ionic bond forms:
• Example+
Li
F
Li
F
how an ionic bond forms:
• Example 2
O
Na
Na
Na
O
Na
The Cross over rule
• This rule allows you to figure out how
many atoms you will need of each element
for bonding to occur without the need to
draw Bohr diagrams
Cross Over Rule
• Step 1.
•
Write the symbols, with the metal first (the
element with the positive charge)
•
Mg
I
• Step 2.
•
Write the Ionic charge above each symbol to
indicate the stable ion that each element forms.
2+
1Mg
I
Cross Over Rule
• Step 3. Draw an arrow from the metals
charge to the non-metal and an arrow from
the non-metal charge to the metal. (Cross
over the arrows)
2+
Mg
1I
Cross Over Rule
• Step 4. Fill in the number of atoms from each
element will have by following the arrows. If
need be reduce to lowest terms (in other
words, if they are the same number, you don’t
write those numbers down because you could
divide the whole molecule by that number
which would = 1)
MgI2
• (if the number crossed is a 1, the 1 is not
shown)
Ionic Binary Compounds:
IUPAC Naming
Consists of two types of monoatomic ions
1. The metal ion is always written first and
retains its whole name
2. The non-metal is written second and has a
slight change, the ending (suffix) is
changed to –ide
 Do not write ones (Ex Na1Cl1) and if both
elements have the same number reduce to
lowest terms (Ca2O2 = CaO)

Example
Example:
 Na+ Cl- use the cross over method NaCl
 IUPAC name: sodium chloride
 The metal name is written in full and the
non-metal has the –ide suffix added to it.

Sodium chloride
Ionic Multivalent Binary
Compounds
A multivalent compound is one that may
have varied numbers of electrons in its
valence shell. This occurs with elements that
fall outside of the representative elements.
The transition metals are elements that
commonly have multiple valence shell
electrons.
 This means that they can form compounds
in various proportions.

Example:
Copper + Oxygen
 Copper and oxygen could have two different
formulas with two completely different
properties.
 CuO and Cu2O
 In order to differentiate the two compounds
we must use a different method to name
them to avoid confusion.

Ionic Multivalent Binary
Compounds: IUPAC Naming

Same as Ionic Binary but it indicates the
metals charge

List the metal name first

After the metal name indicate the ion charge
in brackets using roman numerals.

The non-metal has -ide suffix added.
Polyatomic Ions
• Polyatomic Ions are ions that are composed
of more than one atom. The entire molecule
carries a charge to it.
Polyatomic Ions
• Example-
NO3
-
SO4
O
2-
PO4
2-
O
3-
O S O
O P O
O
O
3-
Bonding
• Ionic Bonding with polyatomic ions occurs in
the same manner as it does with binary
atomic molecules.
– Use the crossover method
– Be sure that the charge that is crossed over
applies to the whole polyatomic ion. If the charge
is greater than 1, use brackets around the
polyatomic ion to indicate the number applies to
the whole ion.
Example 1
Step 1
Na + NO3-
Step 2
1+
Na
Step 3
1- 1+
NO3 Na
1NO3
Step 4
NaNO3
Naming Ionic Polyatomic
compounds: IUPAC
• Multivalent: Metal (charge) polyatomic ion
• Monovalent: Metal polyatomic ion
• Tertiary ionic compounds are comprised of a
metal ion and a polyatomic ion. Write the
polyatomic ions in the same way as
monatomic ions.
Examples
• NaOH =
– sodium hydroxide
• Cu(ClO4)2 =
– copper (II) perchlorate
• Tin (IV) chlorate =
– Sn (ClO3)4
Oxyanions
• Oxyanions = a polyatomic ion that includes
oxygen.
• Their name depends on how many Oxygen’s
it has in the poly atomic ion.
Oxyanions
• Example
•
ClO- hypochlorite ion hypo-_________-ite
•
ClO2- chlorite ion
___________-ite
•
ClO3- chlorate ion
__________-ate
•
ClO4- perchlorate ion per-_______-ate
•
• This also applies to Br and I
Naming Binary Molecular
Compounds: IUPAC
Write down the name of the first element. If
there is more than one atom of this element
attach a Greek prefix. (if there is only one atom
do not attach the prefix)
 Attach a Greek prefix (relating to the number of
atoms) to the second elements name and add ide.

Example:
 CO = Carbon monoxide
 CO2 = Carbon dioxide

Word Equations
examples.

Silver nitrate + copper  silver + copper (II) nitrate
Reactants
Products
 Hydrogen + Oxygen  water vapour
Reactants
Products
The Conservation of Mass
Build This
Balancing Equations
Methane + oxygen  water + carbon dioxide
 CH4 + O2  H2O + CO2
 CH4 + 2O2  2H2O + CO2

Types of chemical reactions
1. Combustion Reaction
- The reaction of a substance with oxygen,
producing oxides and energy
• Fuel + oxygen  oxides + energy
• AB + oxygen  common oxides of A and B
(ex AO, BO)
2. Synthesis Reaction
• -A chemical reaction in which two or more
substances combine to form a more
complex substance.
• A + B  AB
• Example:
• 2CO(g) + O2(g) pt 2CO2(g)
3. Decomposition reaction
• -A chemical reaction in which a compound
is broken down into two or more simpler
substances.
• AB  A + B
• Example: The decomposition of water.
• 2H2O(l) + electricity 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
Chemical reactions in solution
• A Solution is a homogenous mixture in
which a pure substance, called the solute, is
dissolved in another pure substance called
the solvent.
•
• The solution is often an aqueous solution
which is a solution where water is the
solvent.
4. Single Displacement reaction
• -A reaction of an element with a compound to
produce a new element and a new compound.
The reaction will only occur if the element is
higher on the reactivity series than the metal in
the compound.
• A + BC  AC + B
• Example:
• Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)  2Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
5. Double displacement
reaction
• - A reaction in which aqueous ionic compounds
rearrange cations and anions, resulting in the
formation of new compounds.
• AB + CD  AD + CB
• Example:
• Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq)  PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
Double displacement is likely to
occur if;
• - a precipitate is produced
• - a gas is produced
• - a acid base neutralization occurs
4 Factors that affect rates
of reactions
Temperature
When the reactants are heated, they bounce
and contact more vigorously with other
reactant molecules. This increases the
number of successful collision and the rate
of reaction. This is the most important factor.
4 Factors that affect rates
of reactions
Concentration
 Concentration is defined as the number of
molecules of reactants per unit volume. The
more the concentration of reactant
molecules, the higher the probability of
collision due to their sheer number. Excess
concentration may have no effect if one of
the reactants is used up.
4 Factors that affect rates
of reactions
Surface Area
 By increasing surface area, the number of
molecules exposed for collisions is
increased. This allows more collisions
between molecules to occur and increases
the rate of reaction.
4 Factors that affect rates
of reactions
Catalyst
 Catalysts, are chemicals or substances that
catalyze or promote a chemical reaction to
occur and remaining unchanged in the end.
They are like parts of an assembling
mechanism that help making the final
product but then detach themselves from it.
They lower the activation energy.
 You
can identify an acid from its name or
from its chemical formula. Usually, the name
of an acid ends with the word “acid.” If you
are given the chemical formula of a
substance, you know that it is an acid if:
1. the chemical formula starts with H (the
symbol for a hydrogen atom) OR
2. the chemical formula ends with COOH (the
formula for a carboxyl polyatomic ion)
Example – HF(aq) hydrofluoric acid, CH3COOH(aq) acetic acid.
 There
are two rules for naming acids when
the chemical formula of an acid starts with H
and has only one other non-metallic element
Step
Examples
HCl
1. Start with the Prefix “hydro”
(aq)
hydro
HF
(aq)
Hydro
2.To the first part of the name of Hydrochl Hydroflu
the non-metallic element, add oric acid oric acid
the suffix “ic” and add the
word “acid”
 Some
acids contain a polyatomic ion. When
the polyatomic ion in an acid contains an
oxygen atom (O) and its name ends in “ate”,
the acid can be named by the steps shown
below.
Step
1. Start with the name of the element in
the polyatomic ion that is not oxygen
2.Add the suffix “ic” and the word
“acid”
Examples
H2SO4(aq)
H3PO4(aq)
sulphur
phosphorus
sulphuric
acid
phosphorus
ic acid
Table 1 Examples of common acids include
Common name
Formula
Source or use
Vinegar (acetic acid)
HC2H3O2 or HC2H2OOH
Salad dressing
Citric acid
HC6H7O7
Oranges, lemons
Ascorbic acid
HC6H7O6
Vitamin C
Lactic acid
HC3H5O3
Sour milk or tired
muscles
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4
Car batteries
A
base can also be identified from its name
or its chemical formula. A substance is a base
if its name begins with the name of a
metallic ion and ends with the word
“hydroxide.” A substance is also a base if:
 the chemical formula starts with a metallic
ion or with the ammonium ion NH4+
AND
 the chemical formula ends with OH (called a
hydroxyl group)
 The
name of a base can be determined from
its chemical formula by following the steps
shown in Table 5.5. Notice that all bases (in
this class) are followed by the word
“hydroxide.”
Step
Examples
KOH
(aq)
NH4OH
(aq)
1. Write the name of the positively charged
metallic ion that is at the beginning of
the chemical formula. This step remains
the same if the positively charged ion is a
polyatomic ion.
Potassium
Ammonium
1. Add the word “hydroxide”
Potassium
hydroxide
Ammonium
hydroxide
Common Name
Formula
Source or use
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
Drain cleaner
Potassium
hydroxide
Aluminum
hydroxide
Ammonium
hydroxide
Sodium
bicarbonate
Potassium sulphite
KOH
Soap, cosmetics
Al(OH)3
Antacids
NH4OH
Window cleaner.
NaHCO3
Baking soda, used
in baking
Food preservative
K2SO3
THE STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES
 Some
acids and bases are classified as
being strong while others are called
weak.
 -Strong acids and bases are extremely
reactive and corrosive.
 -Weak acids and bases are mostly
unreactive and corrosive.
THE PH SCALE
(POWER OF HYDROGEN)
 pH
scale is used to represent how acidic or
basic a solution is. The scale ranges from
0-14 with very acidic being 0, neutral
being 7, and very basic being 14.
Every point on the scale represents a 10 base
exponent difference.
 Ex lemons (pH = 2.0) are 100 times more
acidic than tomatoes (pH = 4.0)
 7.0 is neutral (neither acidic nor basic (alkaline)).
 Acids range from 0-6.9
 Bases range from 7.1 -14

THE PH SCALE
(POWER OF HYDROGEN)
NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS (317-319)

The products of a neutralization reaction of an
acid and a base are salt and water.

Acid + Base  Salt + water
Biology: Unit Review
Cell Theory:
1. All cells are similar to each other, but not
identical.
2. Every living organism is made of cells
3. New cells are created by old cells dividing
into two.
4. A cell contains everything that it needs to live
and grow.
5. Cells take nutrients from its environment and
release waste products into the environment.
Cell Parts and Their Functions
 All living things are made of cells.
 Our bodies are made up of between 10 trillion (1013)
and 100 trillion (1014) cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 KNOW CELL STRUCTURES
 It would take too much time to cover all of them now.
Differences between Plant and
Animal Cells - Plants
• Contain Chlorophyll – photosynthesis
• Large central Vacuole
• Store energy in the forms such as
cornstarch and oil
Differences between Plant and
Animal Cells - Animals
• Small Vacuole
• Store energy in form of glycogen,
carbohydrates, and lipids (fat)
• Some have specialized compounds for
haemoglobin and cholesterol
Differences between Plant and
Animal Cells - Animals
• Centrioles – Paired structures used in cell
division.
• Cilia or flagellum –used for movement
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
The compound light microscope uses two sets of
lenses to magnify the object.
 Illumination is provided by a light source on the
base of the microscope. The magnification
typically ranges from approximately 40 X to
2,000 X.
 This means that it can magnify the object that
many times.
 The total magnification can be found by
multiplying the power of the objective lens by
the ocular lens.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM) is capable of
magnifications of up to 1 500 000 X
.
 Uses a beam of electrons instead of
light.
 Since a beam of electrons can pass
through thin slices, only thin
sections of cells can be examined.
 Only dead cells can be observed.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM)

provides information about the surface features
of a specimen. The SEM operates up to a
magnification of 300 000 x and produces threedimensional images of cells.
Mitosis Movie
The Cell Cycle
There are four phases in the cell cycle:
• First growth phase (G1)
• Synthesis phase (S)
• Second growth phase (G2)
• Mitosis (M)
The Three Phases of Interphase
(IPMAT)
• -A cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase.
1. First Growth Phase (G1)
• Period of growth
• Produces new proteins and organelles
2. Synthesis Phase (S)
• Makes (synthesizes) an entire copy of the DNA of
the cell.
• Key proteins associated with chromosomes also
copied
The Three Phases of Interphase
(IPMAT)
3. Second Growth Phase (G2)
• Produces organelles and structures needed for
cell division
Mitosis (PMAT)
• When the cell is ready to divide it enters mitosis.
• All preparation up until this phase must be complete
as it requires a lot of energy.
• Contains 4 stages
1. Prophase(IPMAT)
Early Prophase
• The chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes.
• The centrioles move toward the poles.
• - Spindle fibres form.
1. Prophase(IPMAT)
Late Prophase
• The nuclear envelope breaks down.
• Each chromosome is connected to a spindle fibre
at its centromere.
• Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell forming
poles of the mitotic spindles
2. Metaphase (IPMAT)
• -Each chromosome becomes completely
condensed.
• -The chromosomes move toward the centre of
the cell and line up at the middle of the cell.
• - The mitotic spindle is completely attached
from the mitotic spindle to the centromere
3. Anaphase (IPMAT)
• Sister chromatids separate at the centromere.
• Each chromatid is now a complete chromosome.
• The separated chromosomes are pulled to
opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase and Cytokinesis
(IPMAT)
• Mitotic Spindle breaks down
• Two new nuclei form
• The cytoplasm and cell membrane pinch in half to
form two new daughter cells.
4. Telophase and Cytokinesis
(IPMAT)
• The process of splitting the cytoplasm is known
as cytokinesis.
• In plant cells, the cell plate forms the cell wall and
inner plasma membrane in each of the new cells.
• Each of the new cells enters the G1 phase of
the cell cycle, and the cell cycle is repeated.
CANCER CELLS
A cell that divides uncontrollably is called a
cancer cell. Cancer cells develop when a change
occurs in the cell that affects how that cell
divides. When a cell’s DNA is changed, it is
known as a mutation.
 A cancer cell divides differently from a normal
cell.

CANCER CELLS

Cancer cells ignore the usual densitydependent inhibition of growth, multiplying
after contact with other cells is made, piling up
until all nutrients are exhausted. The cancer cells
proliferate to form mass of cancer cells called a
tumour. As the tumour grows larger, it begins to
release proteins from the cell to attract new blood
vessel growth (this is called angiogenesis).

I don’t know if you covered Stem cells and
specialized cells or not.
TYPES OF TISSUES IN ANIMALS (4)
TYPES OF TISSUES IN ANIMALS (4)
1. Epithelial Tissues
 The main purpose of epithelial tissues is to
protect the organism from dehydration while
also providing a resistance to friction.
These thin sheets of tightly packed cells cover
surfaces such as skin as well as the lining of
internal organs.
TYPES OF TISSUES IN ANIMALS (4)
2. Connective Tissue
 The main purpose of connective tissues is to
provide support and insulation. These cells
and fibers are held together by a liquid, a solid or
a gel, known as a matrix.
3. MUSCLE TISSUE


The main purpose of muscles
tissues is to allow for the
body to move. They are made
of long, thin fibers that contain
specialized proteins capable of
shortening or contracting.
There are three types of muscle
tissue
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
1.Skeletal muscle cells are large, multinucleate,
and column shaped cells; they are chiefly
attached to the skeleton.
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
2. Smooth muscle cells are small and
mononucleate; they are found in the walls of
tubes such as blood vessels, glandular ducts, and
the digestive system
3. MUSCLE TISSUE

Cardiac muscle cells of the heart are small,
striated, and branched.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE

The main purpose of nervous tissues is to
provide sensory sensations which allow for
communication with the brain which allow for
the coordination of body functions (including
reactions). These thin cells with fine branches at
the ends are capable of conducting electrical
impulses.
Plant Tissues (4)

All four types of plant tissue are grown
from groups of meristematic cells known
as meristematic tissue
1. Epidermal Tissue

The epidermal tissue on both the
top and underside of the leaf is clear
and very thin.
2. Vascular Tissue

Vascular tissue plays an important role in
transporting water and nutrients
throughout the plant.
3. Ground Tissue
Most of the plant is made of ground
tissue.
 In the roots, ground tissue is involved in
food and water storage.

4. Meristematic Tissue

Unspecialized tissue found in the roots
and capable of specialization into any
other type of plant tissue.
Animal Organs




Recall that there are four types of animal tissues:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Tissues join together to form organs that have
specialized functions.
For example, skin is an organ that covers and
protects your body, while the heart transports
materials around your body.
Most organs are made of several different tissues.
For example, the heart is made of muscle tissue,
connective tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue
Skin - The largest organ in the
body


The skin protects the inner cells from damage, acts
as a defence against disease organisms, insulates,
releases heat, and excretes bodily wastes.
The skin is made up of two different layers of
tissues: the epidermis and the dermis.
Lungs

As air is breathed in through the
nose or mouth, the air passes
through the pharynx into the
trachea.


A flexible tube that is ringed with
cartilage.
Air moves down the trachea to the
bronchus, into smaller bronchial
tubes, and then into tiny air sacs,
called alveoli, which are made of a
thin layer of epithelial tissue.
Circulatory system
Organs of Digestion




Ingestion – the taking in of
nutrients
Digestion – The breakdown of
complex organic molecules into
smaller components by physical
and chemical means
Absorption – the taking up of
digested materials into the cells
of the digestive tract
Egestion – the removal of waste
food materials from the body.
Plant Organs


A flowering plant is made up of
four types of plant tissues:
epidermal, ground, vascular, and
meristematic.
These plant tissues group together
to form organs that perform
special functions for the plant. The
organs in a plant are the roots,
the leaves, the stem, and the
flower or fruit.
Know Organ systems


Humans have 11
Plants have 2
X-Ray - The most common form
of medical imaging.
 An X-ray is high-energy radiation that can
easily penetrate materials such as skin and
tissues but cannot easily penetrate metals
and bone.
 A radiograph is produced when X-rays pass
through the body to produce an image. Xrays are absorbed by dense structures such
as bone, the bones appear whiter than
other structures
Fluoroscopy
 Fluoroscopy is a technique that uses a
continuous beam of X-rays to produce images
that show the movement of organs, such as
the stomach, intestine, and colon, in the body
Ultrasound
 Ultrasound imaging uses high-frequency
sound waves to produce images of body
tissues and organs.
 A transducer produces the sound waves that
enter the body and are reflected back to the
transducer by internal body structures. This
reflection makes an image of the body
structure, which is recorded on a screen and
viewed by a technician.
Computed Tomography (CT) /
Computer Assisted Tomography (CAT)
 Uses X-ray equipment to form a three
dimensional image from a series of images
taken at different angles of the body
 Used to diagnose cancer, abnormalities of
the skeletal system, and vascular diseases.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses
powerful magnets and radio waves to produce
detailed images of the body.
 The magnet in an MRI machine produces a
strong magnetic field that interacts with the
hydrogen atoms.
 A combination of the magnetic field and
different radio frequencies makes it possible for
a specialized computer to generate an image.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
 It is also used to diagnose forms of
cancer, brain diseases, and
cardiovascular conditions. An MRI
machine is about the size of a car and
looks like a hollow cylinder.
Nuclear Medicine
 Nuclear medicine uses
radioisotopes to provide
images of how tissues or
organs function by attaching a
radioisotope to a chemical that
is absorbed by certain organs.
As the radioisotope emits
radiation, a special camera and
computer detect the radiation
and convert it into an image
Positron Emission Tomography
(PET)
 A type of nuclear medicine where a patient is
given a radioisotope that emits particles
called positrons.
 PET is used most often to detect cancer in
tissues or to examine the effects of cancer
treatments. PET is also used to detect heart
disease and some brain disorders, such as
Alzheimer’s disease and epilepsy.
Biophotonics
 Biophotonics imaging uses the interactions of
light with cells and tissues to diagnose and
treat abnormalities.
Public Health and diseases
 I don’t know what your class specifically
covered
Social and Ethical Issues in
Systems Biology
 Ex – cloning
 Transgenic Techniques