How to motivate „normal“ people
to behave in a more
proenvironmental way?
Sebastian Bamberg
University of Applied Science Bielefeld
Sebastian.bamberg@fh-bielefeld.de
The Problem

CO2 emissions are the central cause of climate change.

Contribution of consumers’ behavior to CO2-emissions:



Transport – ca. 20%
Home energy use (heating/cooling) – ca. 35%
Nutrition (meat consumption) – ca. 20%
The Problem

With growing insight into the harmful impact on the
earth‘s ecosystems of the lifestyles pursued in
industrialized societies, behavioral change has become a
central focus not only of climate protection policy but
also of environmental psychology as an applied science.
The Problem





How can we persuade people…
to switch transport modes,
appliance choices,
and eating habits
… in a way that will reduce their damaging impact on the
environment?
The Role of Psychology


It is trivial that problem awareness is a first precondition
for behavioral change.
Does problem awareness (high environmental
consciousness) directly motivates behavioral change?
The Role of Psychology


In Germany about 75% of the population view climate
change as one of the most serious threats humanity is
confronted with.
However, only 9% are willing to personally adopt
behaviors which would effectively contribute to the
reduction of this threat.
Central Questions

Obviously, even if people are aware of a problem it is a
long way to actually change own behavior.
The Role of Psychology



What motivates a person to critically reevaluate her/his
current behavior?
How does a behavioral change goal develop, how is it
transformed into a concrete behavioral change strategy?
How do individuals overcome the problems they
encounter when trying to implement this new behavioral
strategy?
STAGE MODELS


In psychology stage models provide an interesting
approach for answering these questions.
Stage models explicitly focus on the dynamic, temporal
aspects of behavioral change.
STAGE MODELS



The central theoretical assumption underlying all stage
models:
Behavioral change could be best modelled as a person‘s
transition through a sequence of qualitatively
different stages of behavioral change.
In health psychology the Transtheoretical Modell
(Prochaska & Velicer, 1997) is a well known stage model.
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC, Bamberg 2011)





Construes change as a process involving progress
through a series of four stages:
Predecisional stage
Preactional stage
Actional stage
Postactional stage
Stage Model of Self-regulated
behavioral Change (SSBC)

These stages of behavioral change reflect …





four
timely ordered,
qualitatively different
TASKS
people have to solve for turning desired goals into
behavioral practices.
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC, Bamberg 2011)

The formation of the three intention types




goal-intention
behavioral intention
implementation intention
indicates that a person has successfully solved the
respective stage specific task and can move on to the
next stage.
Stage Model of Self-regulated
Behavioral Change




Mind set of people in the predecisional stage:
Perform the problem behavior on a regular, habitual
basis.
Are not fully aware of the negative consequences
associated with this behavior, and thus see no reasons
for behavioral change.
Confronting people in this stage with a direct request to
change their behavior runs the risk of triggering
reactance.
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC) -Task of the first PREDECISIONAL stage
Predecisional
Stage
Preactional
Stage
Transition point
Goal
Intention
Motivation task:
Raising doubts
Actional
Stage
Transition point
Behavioral
Intention
Motivational task:
Selecting a
change strategy
Postactional
Stage
Transition point
Implementation
Intention
Motivational task:
Implemention of
the change strategy
Motivational task:
Habitualising
the new behavior
Stage Model of Self-regulated
Behavioral Change



Mind set of people in the preactional stage:
People already have the general goal of changing their
current behavior (high goal intention).
However, because several actions (e.g. cycling, walking,
public transport) could normally be used as a means to
achieve this goal (e.g. car reduction), the task
confronting them is to select the personally most suitable
behavioral strategy.
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC)- Task of the second PREACTIONAL stage
Predecisional
Stage
Transition point
Goal
Intention
Motivation task:
Raising doubts
Preactional
Stage
Actional
Stage
Transition point
Behavioral
Intention
Motivational task:
Selecting a
change strategy
Postactional
Stage
Transition point
Implementation
Intention
Motivational task:
Implemention of
the change strategy
Motivational task:
Habitualising
the new behavior
Stage Model of Self-regulated
Behavioral Change



Mind set of people in the actional stage:
People not only possess a strong goal intention but also
have formed a strong behavioral intention; that is, they
have made a decision on which new behavioral strategy
they want to test instead of the old one.
However, people often have difficulties to translate their
“good” behavioral intentions into real action. That is,
people often fail to do the things that they say they
intent to do or fail to avoid doing things that they do not
want to do (Orbell & Sheeran, 1998).
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC)- Task of the third ACTIONAL
stage
Predecisional
Stage
Transition point
Goal
Intention
Motivation task:
Raising doubts
Preactional
Stage
Actional
Stage
Transition point
Behavioral
Intention
Motivational task:
Selecting a
change strategy
Postactional
Stage
Transition point
Implementation
Intention
Motivational task:
Implemention of
the change strategy
Motivational task:
Habitualising
the new behavior
Stage Model of Self-regulated
Behavioral Change




Mind set of people in the postactional stage:
Persons actually perform the selected new behavior for
some time.
In this stage they reflect on the experiences they have
made with the new behavior and compare it critically
with the old behavior.
As a result, the main intervention task in this stage is
twofold: to provide feedback on how successfully they
have achieved their personal change goal and to help
them to cope with the temptation to relapse to the old
behavior.
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral
Change (SSBC)- Task of the forth POSTACTIONAL stage
•
Evaluating what has achieved and to decide whether further action is necessary.
•
Struggling with temptation that is, preventing a relapse into the old behavior.
Predecisional
Stage
Transition point
Goal
Intention
Motivation task:
Raising doubts
Preactional
Stage
Actional
Stage
Transition point
Behavioral
Intention
Motivational task:
Selecting a
change strategy
Postactional
Stage
Transition point
Implementation
Intention
Motivational task:
Implemention of
the change strategy
Motivational task:
Habitualising
the new behavior
Stage Model of Self-regulated
behavioral Change (SSBC)
•
How to explain the formation of the three critical transition points
•
For intervention development precise information is needed
concerning the determinants of the three critical intention types.
•
These intention determinants are the direct intervention targets.
SSBC - Processes contributing to the formation of a
goal intention
Pre-decisional Stage
Pre-actional Stage
Transition point
SSBC - Processes contributing to the formation of a
behavioral intention
Pre-actional stage
Actional Stage
Attitudes toward
alternative
behavioral strategies
Behavioral
intention
Goal
intention
Perceived goal
feasibility
Perceived
behaviroal control
over alternative
behavioral
strategies
SSBC- Processes contributing to the formation of an
implementation intention
Actional Stage
Postactional Stage
Coping and action
planning abilities
Behavioral
Intention
Perceived behaviroal
control
Implementation
Intention
Maintenance
Self-efficacy
New habit
SSBC- Processes contributing to the maintenance of
the new behavior
Postactional Stage
Maintenance
Self-efficacy
Implementation
Intention
New habit
Recovery
Self-efficacy
The stage model of self-regulated behavioral change

Model specific focus: Developing and testing action
hypotheses for the SSBC.
Interventions targeting people in
the predecisional stage.
The SSBC provides clear guidelines on which strategies
interventions targeting people in the predecisional stage
should focus on:
(a) enhancing problem awareness;
(b) increasing acceptance of personal responsibility;
(c) making social norms salient;
(d) strengthening perceived ability to change current
behavior; and
(e) promoting the formation of a clear and challenging, but
not excessive personal change goal.
Interventions targeting people in
the predecisional stage.
However, because of the aforementioned risk of eliciting
reactance, the intervention should include not only
arguments promoting behavioral change but also elements
trying to reduce reactance.
Research (e.g., Knowles & Riner, 2007) has indicated that
one of the most effective ways to reduce reactance is to
merely acknowledge the fact that the person might feel
some resistance.
Interventions targeting people in
the preactional stage
The main task people are confronted with in this stage is to
select the personally most suitable behavioral strategy.
Consequently, the main intervention goal in this stage is to
provide more knowledge about the pros and cons as well as
the personal feasibility of behavioral alternatives, and then
help people to select their personally most suitable
behavioral alternative
Interventions targeting people in
the preactional stage
Besides promoting arguments, interventions for people in
the preactional stage should also include arguments
targeting potential sources of reactance/resistance:
According to Knowles and Riner (2007), one effective
strategy to deal with concerns about an offer consists in
giving guarantees.
In the mobility case for example, participants could be
offered a possibility to test whether public transport services
fit their purposes with a free one-week travel pass.
Interventions targeting people in
the actional stage.
In this stage the main task people are confronted with is to
translate their “good” behavioral intentions into real action.
Gollwitzer (1999; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006) proposed that
explicitly motivating people to plan the when, where, and
how to enact the intended new behavior is a simple and
effective strategy for dealing with this problem.
Interventions targeting people in
the postactional stage
In this stage people are reflecting on the experiences they
have made with the new behavior and are comparing it
critically with the old behavior.
As a result, the main intervention task in this stage is
twofold: to provide feedback on how successfully they have
achieved their personal change goal and to help them to
cope with the temptation to relapse to the old behavior.
Interventions targeting people in
the postactional stage
As a consequence, besides repeating and strengthening the
positive consequences associated with the new behavior and
helping them to overcome barriers, the focus of
interventions should be on providing social support.
This could be done by explicitly thanking and praising people
for their good decision and offering them a small gift in
recognition.
Interventions targeting people in
the postactional stage
Besides asking them whether they need additional
information, another intervention element for this stage
group consists in motivating them to think about buying a
permanent monthly or annual public transport pass.
The idea behind this intervention element is to increase
participants’ commitment to their current behavior and to
strengthen its habitual nature.
From the Model to a Real Intervention
The Berlin Intervention Study
General aim:
 To test the ability of a stage-based phone marketing campaign
to promote voluntary car use reduction for daily trips in Berlin.
General logic of the intervention approach:
 Using personal contact (a phone call) to motivate car users
 Tailoring the intervention to the person’s current behavioral
change stage.
 Combining personal contact with supporting print materials
 Repeating the intervention (2 times)
The Berlin Intervention Study
Intervention Elements

Invitation letter contains the stage diagnosis tool

Specific dialogue modules for the phone contact with
participants in the
 pre-decisional stage
 pre-actional stage
 actional stage
 post-actional stage

Stage specific support print materials
Guidelines for Developing Stage-specific Intervention
Modules Aiming to Trigger Stage Transition
Stage of change
Intervention techniques
 Make social norms salient
Predecisional
 Enhance problem awareness and self-focus
 Enhance goal setting und goal commitment
 Provide information about the pros and cons of
Preactional
different behavioural alternatives and enhancing
perceived behavioural control
Actional
 Support behavioural planning
 Provide behavioral feedback
Postactional
 Prevent the temptation to relapse
Intervention Effects


H1: The stage-based dialogue marketing intervention
has a significant effect on post-intervention travel
behavior.
H2: The effect of the stage-based dialog marketing
intervention is significantly stronger than the effect of a
standardized information intervention.
Effect of the Berlin Dialogue Marketing Campaign
on Car Use for Daily Trips
ANOVA F (2, 243) = 5.31, p < .01
8,0
7,0
p = .001
p = .30
p = .01
7,0
6,7
6,0
5,8
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
Control Group
Info-Package
Experimental Condition
Dialogue
Effect of the Berlin Dialogue Marketing Campaign
on PT Use for Daily Trips
ANOVA F (2, 243) = 3.31, p < .05
7,0
p = .02
6,0
p = .80
6,5
p = .03
5,5
5,6
Kontrollgruppe
Info-Package
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
Experimental Condition
Dialogue
Identification of four Stage Groups

H3: With help of the information obtained by a newly
developed stage measure in the total sample four
homogeneous subgroups could be identified
representing the four stage groups of behavioral
change.
The Stage Measure
1. part: Six statements representing the stage typical “mind-sets”
Question: Which of the following statements best describes how you
feel about your current level of car use for daily trips (in city X/ to
your workplace) and whether you have any plans to try to reduce
some or all of these car trips?
Please choose which statement fits best to your current situation
and tick only one box
At the moment, I use the car for most of my trips. I am happy with
my current level of car use and see no reason why I should reduce
it.
Stage
allocation
Predecisional
At the moment, I still use the car for most of my trips. I would like to
reduce my current level of car use, but, at the moment, I feel it would
be impossible for me to do so.
At the moment, I do use the car for most of my trips. I am currently
thinking about changing some or all of these trips to noncar modes,
but at the moment I am unsure how I can replace these car trips, or
when I should do so.
Preactional
At the moment, I use the car for most of my trips, but it is my aim to
reduce my current level of car use. I already know which trips I will
replace and which alternative transport mode I will use, but, as yet, I
have not actually put this into practice.
Actional
Because I am aware of the many problems associated with car use,
I already try to use non-car modes as much as possible. I will
maintain or even reduce my already low level of car use in the next
months.
As I do not own/have access to a car, reducing my level of car use is
not currently an issue for me.
Postactional
‚Captives‘
The Stage Measure
2. part: Current behavior
Your current travel behaviour: In the last four weeks how frequently have you used the following transport modes for everyday trips (e.g. to the workplace, for shopping- or leisure)?
Car as driver
Always ?
Often ?
Occasionally ?
Seldom ?
Never ?
Car as passenger
Always ?
Often ?
Occasionally ?
Seldom ?
Never ?
Bicycle
Always ?
Often ?
Occasionally ?
Seldom ?
Never ?
Walking
Always ?
Often ?
Occasionally ?
Seldom ?
Never ?
Public transport (PT)
Always ?
Often ?
Occasionally ?
Seldom ?
Never ?
Empirical Evidence for the Postulated four Stage Groups
Results of a Latent Class Cluster Analysis (LCCA)
Pre-intervention LCCA Results
LL
BIC(LL)
Post-intervention LCCA Results
LL
BIC(LL)
1-Cluster
-1157,3418
2374,9247
-1191,2895
2443,3589
2-Cluster
-967,9227
2045,3746
-978,8870
2068,2831
3-Cluster
-908,5095
1975,8365
-919,1107
1998,4596
4-Cluster
-871,7382
1951,5821
-881,6886
1973,3444
5-Cluster
-866,8682
1991,1301
-876,8799
2013,4562
Half Year Test-Re-Test Reliability: gamma = .74; rank-correlation = .66
Post-intervention
Behavioral Profils of the four Stage Groups
Stage
Car use
Predecisional
8.8
Preactional
8.6
Actional
7.5
Postactional
4.7
PT use
3.8
3.8
5.7
7.0
Cycling
3.4
3.8
3.8
5.5
Walking
7,8
8.8
8.6
8.9
Planned contrasts indicate significant differences in Car und PT use
between the two earlier and to later stages of behavioral change
Furthermore, there is a significant decrease in car use and increase in
PT use from actional to postactional stage.
Testing the role of the three intention
types as stage transition points



H4a: A strong goal intention is significantly associated
with the probability of assignment to the preactional
stage,
H4b: A strong behavioral intention significantly
associated with the assignment probability to the
actional stage,
H4c: A strong implementation intention significantly
associated with the assignment probability to the
postactional stage.
Results of a non-proportional ordinal logistic regression analysis:
Odds Ratio (OR) Estimates
Varying Effect on Thresholds
Low vs. High Goal intention
Contemplation
Preparation
Maintenance
p- Value for
OR1
OR2
OR3
OR1 = OR2 = OR3
3.19***
1.80***
> .001
Low vs. High Behav. Intention
1.46**
> .001
Low vs. High Planning
1.63***
1.77***
> .001
Stage Transition as mechanism mediating
the intervention effect on behavior


H5: The intervention triggers a significantly stronger
transition from earlier to later stages.
H6: The intervention effect on behavior is mediated by
its effect on stage progression: after controlling for the
intervention effect on stage transition, the direct
intervention effect on behavior is no longer significant.
Mediates Stage Transition
the Intervention Effect?
Predictive power of the stage-specific
variable sets

H7: The proposed sets of socio-cognitive variables are
strong predictors of the three transition points goalintention, behavioral intention, and implementation
intention.
Empirical Model Test
Structural Equation Model (N = 1.055)
Estimator: MLR
Model Fit: Chi-squ. = 1.129,163; df = 505; CFI =0.94; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.034; Probability RMSEA <= .05 is 1.000
Conclusion




The presented results provide some evidence that stage
models may be an interesting framework for
intervention development.
Central limitation:
Study provides no evidence that stage-based
interventions are more effective than non-stage based
interventions.
For this purpose other experimental designs are needed
What intervention techniques are effective
in the pre-decisional stage (promoting the
formation of a goal intention)?



Remember:
Comparing current behavior with important personal
standards is viewed as critical in the pre-decisional
stage.
Self-Awareness as the critical psychological stage.
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques



Theoretical basis: Cognitive Dissonance Theory and
Self-Consistency Theory
Assumption:
Rendering salient inconsistencies between actual
behavior and important self-standards raises negative
feelings in a person which motivate her/him to re-adjust
her/his behavior in line with her/his self-standards.
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques




Procedure:
The IH paradigm relies on a two-stages procedure. In a
first, public commitment, stage participants are asked
to make public statements that are supportive of the
attitudinal object under study (e.g., they have to make
public statements about the importance of energy
saveing).
In a second, mindfulness, stage they are rendered
mindful of their own behavioral transgressions of their
self-standards (e.g., they have to recall instances of
behaviors in which they did not perform in a energy
saving way).
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques


Procedure:
People facing such inconsistencies should realize that
they do not behave in agreement with what they preach
for others, that is they behave in a hypocritical way.
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques





Practical implementation
A sample of 100 students were unsystematically approached on the university
campus. Using a randomization procedure half of them were confronted to a IH
procedure (experimental group). The other half completed only a questionnaire
(control group).
Participants in the IH condition were asked for a contribution for a planned high
school lesson aiming to promote energy saving behavior.
For this purpose participants were asked to allow to photograph them. Then
they were asked to complete the phase ‚Energy saving is important for me,
because...‘ with a own statement (public commitment stage).
After that they were asked to complete a scale measuring participants actual
performance of 10 energy saving behaviors. Half of the items asked for
behaviors which are not performed by the majority of the German
population(e.g., not using the plane for vacation trips, always switching of the
stand by function). The function of the scale was to render participants mindful
of their own behavioral transgressions of their self-standards (mindfullness
stage)
What intervention techniques are effective in the preactional/ actional stage (promoting the formation of a
behavioral/ implementation intention)?


Remember:
Reflecting about the pros and cons of alternative
behaviors as well as planning the when, where, and
how of action initiation are viewed as critical in these
stages.
The MCII - Technique


In mental contrasting, people (1) name their most
important feasible wish that is directed toward changing
their behavior (e.g., regular physical activity), (2) name
and imagine the most positive outcome of successfully
changing their behavior (e.g., being in better shape),
and (3) name and imagine the most critical obstacle
that stands in the way of wish fulfillment (e.g., being
tired after work).
If participants expect that they can realize their wish,
mental contrasting leads to strong behavioral change
intention.
The MCIITechnique


The thus strengthened behavioral intention is then
supplemented by a procedure aiming to promote the
precise planning when, where and how to implement
this intention (e.g., If the weather is fine tomorrow
morning, then I will bike to work!)
The combination of mental contrasting and behavioral
planning should have a strong impact on behavior
change because the two strategies complement each
other.
The MCIITechnique


Procedure:
In the first step participants write down four items: (1)
their most important current wish regarding physical
activity (e.g., biking to work); (2) the most positive
outcome of realizing their wish (e.g., getting into better
shape) and events and experiences they associated with
this positive outcome; (3) the most critical obstacle
(e.g., getting up too late) together with events and
experiences they associated with this obstacle.
The MCIITechnique




Procedure:
In the next step with the following questions
participants are motivated to for three behavioral plans:
(1) When and where does the obstacle occur, and what
can I do to overcome or circumvent the obstacle?;
(2) When and where is an opportunity to prevent the
obstacle from occurring, and what can I do to prevent it
from occurring?; and
(3)When and where is a good opportunity for me to act
on my wish, and what would this action be?
The MCIITechnique



Procedure:
For example, a participant could counter the obstacle of
getting up too late with the plan “If I get up too late,
then I’ll skip the morning news!”
Effekte der Hypercrisy-Intervention getrennt für beide Stage Gruppen
Effect of the Induced Hypocrisy Technique
Predecisional/Preactional
Decisional/Actional
Control
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Group
Group
Group
Group
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Social Norm
1.52
1.18
1.73
1.23
1.43
1.18
1.33
1.06
Personal moral norm
2.67
1.16
3.42
0.64***
2.96
0.94
2.84
0.85
Goal Intention
2.87
0.92
3.66
0.46**
3.27
0.66
3.06
0.65
Behavioral attitude
3.14
0.66
3.55
0.62***
3.27
0.67
3.30
0.48
Behavioral PBC
2.98
0.76
3.05
0.88
2.81
0.83
2.78
0.88
Behavioral Intention
2.54
1.03
3.11
0.98**
2.82
0.77
2.76
0.76
Implementation Intention
1.63
1.21
2.44
1.33**
1.72
1.20
1.80
1.09
Effekte der Hypercrisy-Intervention getrennt für beide Stage Gruppen
Effect of the MCII Technique
Predecisional/Preactional
Decisional/Actional
Control
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Group
Group
Group
Group
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Social Norm
0.66
0.83
0.49
0.75
0.67
0.77
0.87
1.10
Personal moral norm
0.99
1.01
1.42*
1.13
1.99
1.19
2.75**
1.01
Goal Intention
1.12
0.98
1.56*
1.22
2.27
1.03
3.08***
0.86
Behavioral attitude
2.42
0.88
2.46
1.07
3.06
0.69
3.41**
0.49
Behavioral PBC
1.57
0.94
1.84
1.15
2.39
1.10
2.94**
0.73
Behavioral Intention
1.34
0.90
1.66
1.18
2.34
0.92
3.08***
0.63
Implementation Intention
0.79
0.76
1.24*
1.30
1.27
1.05
2.11***
1.09
Meat Consumption
3.94
3.13
6.00*
3.69
3.44
2.69
1.74**
2.57
Effect of the MCII Technique
Hypocrisy
Intervention
.23***
MCII
Intervention
.10**
.30***
Attitude
(Behavior)
R2 = .35
.31***
.28***
Social
Norm (Goal)
R2 = .05
.23***
Personal Norm
.68***
(Goal)
R2 = .18
Goal
Intention
R2 = .64
.23*
.06*
.08*
.19*
.28***
Behavioral
Intention
R2 = .73
.52***
Implementation
Intention
R2 = .44
.01
.32**
.20***
.29***
Goal
Feasibility
R2 = .10
.48***
.18***
PBC
(Behavior)
R2 = .51
-.46***
Behavior (Meat
Consumption)
R2 = .22