HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY
100 – 1517 A.D.
INTRODUCTION
The New Testament period has been over-idealized by many. It has often been presented
as a picture of Christian perfection. One only has to read Paul’s letters to the Corinthians to see
that primitive Christianity contained those who were, to use Luthur’s expression, “saints and
sinners at the same time”. Because of this internal situation and because of external problems,
the New Testament pattern of the church and church life changed drastically in a rather short
period of time. This change is seen in the rise of what historians have called the Old Catholic
Church.
THE OLD CATHOLIC CHURCH
The rise of the Old Catholic Church may be discussed in terms of clergy, creed, and
canon. The developments in these areas may be seen in the writing of early Christian leaders
called “Fathers of the Church”. A brief survey of the situation reflected in these writings is
necessary as a background for proper understanding of the developments in clergy, creed, and
canon.
Christians of the 2nd and 3rd centuries had to fight what every strategist tries to avoid – a
war on two fronts. While the church was fighting to preserve its existence in the face of attempts
by the Roman state to abolish it, at the same time it was fighting to preserve purity of doctrine
within the church. Converts to the Christian Faith either came from a background of Jewish
legalism or from the intellectual environment of Greek philosophy. Many of these converts,
until the church could instruct them properly, tended to carry their old ideas over into their new
faith. Others tried to make Christianity appear intellectually respectable to the upper classes.
Persecution before A.D 250 was mainly local, sporadic, and more often the result of
definite civil policy. After that date, however, persecution became at times the policy of the
Roman Imperial Government, and hence, widespread and violent. During that time the saying
that “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church” became a terrible reality to many
Christians in spite of persecution, the church continued to grow, and Christianity became the
official religion of the Roman Empire in A.D. 380.
Some early attempts to pervert Christianity were posed by the Ebionites, the Montanists,
and the Gnostics. The Ebionites believed that Jesus was the son of Mary and Joseph, and who so
completely fulfilled the Jewish law that God chose him to be the Mesiah. Thy believed that one
had to keep the law to be saved. And the problem faced the early church was Montanism.
Between 135 and 160, Montanus, apparently a recent convert from the heathen priesthood, began
to upbraid the Christians in Asia Minor where he lived. He charged them with accepting Gnostic
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ideas, with following human leadership instead of the Holy Spirit in church life and organization,
and with becoming very lax in Christian discipline. Montanus magnified two doctrines, the
Second Coming of Christ to reign from Phrygia, and the Holy Spirit. Montanus often spoke as if
he were the Holy Spirit, or even the Father, not just a divine instrument, thus giving his
pronouncements divine sanction. This posed a grave threat to the authority and jurisdiction of
the established clergy, Montanism splintered the churches in Asia Minor.
The greatest threat to the early church was Gnosticism. Though some of the New
Testament writings appear to be dealing with Gnosticism, it reached the height of its influence
about 150. This movement taught that salvation came through a secret knowledge which it
possessed and that spirit was good, but matter was evil. This dualism tended to undercut the
doctrines of creation, incarnation, and salvation.
Neither Gnosticism nor Montanism, though extremely perilous, was ever embraced by a
majority of Christians, the church remained, more or less, faithful to historic Christianity. By the
latter third of the second century it was calling itself the “catholic” church. The word “catholic”
was first used of the church by Ignatius, who used it in the non-technical sense of “universal”.
Its employment as a technically descriptive adjective gradually became common, so that the
somewhat consolidated church that came out of the Gnostic and Montanist crises is now usually
described as the “Old Catholic Church”. It developed many of its distinguishing characteristics
between 160-190 A.D. The hitherto relatively independent congregations were now knit into an
effective union. The power of the bishop was greatly strengthened, a collection of authoritative
New Testament scriptures recognized and a creed formatted. Christianity now became a rather
rigid corporate body, having recognized official leaders and being capable no merely of defining
its Faith, but of shutting out from its communion all who did not accept its creed or its offiers.
The hange can be summarized as follows: About 150, he was of the church who had received
baptism and the Holy Spirit and called Jesus Lord; About 180, he who acknowledged the rule of
faith (creed), the New Testament canon, and the authority of the bishops. How all this came
about may be discussed, as stated earlier, under the headings of clergy, creed, and canon.
In the New Testament period, leaders were on the same level as the people but served
because they had been given special gifts by the Holy Spirit. However, the original equality
among the several pastors, bishops, and elders serving in a church began to disappear. In the
New Testament there appears to be no difference between a bishop and a presbyter, the two
names simply describing functions of the one office (Acts 20:17-35). Quite early in the second
century, however, it became common for one minister to assume leadership, sometimes because
of unusual scholarship, Christian maturity, or strong personality. The bishop (overseer) became
distinguished from the elders (presbyters). The appearance or a single bishop with authority over
his congregation and with the prestige of an alleged connection with the apostles (apostolic
succession) is the first major development in the history of the Catholic hierarchy. Though the
development did not take place at the same time everywhere, the bishop began extending his
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authority from a single church to a group of churches known as a diocese. The strongest bishops
(assuming titles as archbishop or patriarch or metropolitan) presided over councils attended by
bishops and presbyters from adjacent territory and began looking toward extending their
jurisdiction even further.
The influence of the bishop developed in other directions too. The church came to be
conceived as a saving institution with the saving sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper.
And who within the church controlled these sacraments? The bishop, or course. The view
became current that only the bishop personally possessed the essential power of the church.
Bishop Cyprian of Carthage could say in about 250 that “the bishop is in the church, and the
church is in the bishop, and that if anyone is not with the bishop he is not in the church”.
Another significant development was in the creedal area. This had to do with a statement
of faith, of things which must be believed in order for one to be considered a Christian. The
basic New Testament affirmation is the confession of Peter: “thou art the Christ, the Son of the
living God” (Matthew 16:16). Unfortunately, information about the instruction of converts in
the first century is lacking. With a change in outlook in the second century, however, the need
for a binding statement of faith was felt. With the growth of the idea of the church as a saving
institution, it was necessary for one to be in communion with the church. Ex-communication
meant exclusion from the communion, but no one could be admitted to communion who did not
believe what the church believed. That then was the church’s faith?
We know that by 150 some form of instruction before baptism was common. Subjects
recited a creed and at baptism were asked a series of questions concerning their faith. Out of
such statement the “Apostles’ Creed” arose, appearing first in Rome between 150-175, the first
confession of faith of any length of which we know. Other important creeds came out of the
ecumenical councils of the church held at Nicea (325) and Chalcedon (451). The Nicene Creed
dealing with the divinity of Christ and the Chalcedonian dealing the with person of Christ
became, with minor refinements, normative for Catholic orthodoxy. The first creed said that
Christ was fully divine, not less than God, and the Chalcedonian Creed maintained that in his
person Christ was fully human and fully divine.
The third significant factor in the Old Catholic Church had to do with the Canon, a
collection of inspired books by which faith and practice could be measured. This was made all
the more necessary because Marcion, a Gnostic leader, put together a canon. Marcion included
some of his own writing, the Gospel of Luke, and ten of Paul’s letters, all carefully edited so as
to satisfy his beliefs.
The church, from earliest times, reckoned the Old Testament as scripture. However, the
selection of the books of the New Testament was a process that covered many years. The first
official document which prescribes the 27 books of our New Testament as a lone canonical is
Alexandrian Bishop Athanasius’ Easter Letter for the year 367. Basically, there were three
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criteria in the selection of books for the New Testament. FIRST – a book must have been
written by an Apostle or one closely associated with an Apostle. SECOND – the teaching of a
book had to be in accord with the Old Testament revelation and the oral teaching passed on by
the Apostles. THIRD – there was the matter of consensus of Christian opinion concerning the
book. The ultimate choice, the church believed, was by the Holy Spirit as He led in the choice of
books.
ROMAN CATHOLICISM
The development which led to the rise of the Old Catholic Church set the stage for the
Roman Catholic Church. When the bishop of Rome came to the place of supremacy over other
bishops, then we can speak of the church as the Roman Catholic Church.
How did the Bishop of Rome come to a place of primacy? Several factors were involved.
FIRST – historical events conspired to enhance his reputation. Rome, the largest city in the
west, had been the transitional center of authority for the Roman world for a long period
of time. When Constantine moved the capital of the Empire to Constantinople in 330,
this left the Roman Bishop as the single strongest individual in Rome, and the people of
the west came to look to him for temporal as well as spiritual leadership.
SECOND – the Petrine theory based on Matthew 16:18:“thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will
build my church” tradition connected the Roman church with Peter and Paul, and
considered the bishops of Rome as successors of Peter. The Perrine text, however, was
not seriously used as a biblical foundation for primary until the time of Bishop Damascus
(366-384). Increasingly strong claims on behalf of this verse were made in the years to
follow. For example, Leo I (440-461) was dominated by the conviction that the Lord had
committed to him, the spiritual heir and successor of Peter, the care of the whole church.
It is interesting that among seventy-seven so-called “Fathers and Doctors of the church”
which have written on Matthew 16:18 only seventeen interpreted the rock to refer to
Peter.
At least four other factors can be briefly mentioned which are: Doctrinal wisdom, able
men, loss of competition and effective missionary work. Most of the time the able and
ambitious Bishop of Rome was on the right side in doctrinal controversies. Though at
one time there were as many as five patriarchs, the destruction of Jerusalem in AD70 and
the Moslem conquest of Antioch and Alexandria left only Constantinople as a weak rival
of Rome. Meanwhile, the Roman Church brought much territory under her control by
effective, widespread missionary work.
What date shall we give for the beginning of the Roman Catholic Church? Rome, or
course, says from the time of Peter. Others disagree. Scholars use the time of Bishops
Innocent I (402-604), Leo I (440-461), or Gregory I (590-604) as marking the beginning.
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The origin of the Roman Catholic Church was when the Bishop of Rome was able to
effectively dominate the other bishops. Perhaps this can be linked to the reign of Leo I,
and he may rightly be call the First Pope.
What do Roman Catholics believe in addition to the idea that the Bishop of Rome is the
successor of Peter and the earthly head of the church? The briefest way to get at the heart
of Roman Catholic thought is to look at The Seven Sacraments of that church.
Many protestants do not think that the Roman Church believe in grace. How untrue this
is can be seen from the fact that grace is a vital key in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (12251274), the greatest theologian of the Roman Catholic church. It should be stressed, though, that
the church dispenses grace through the Seven Sacraments.
FIRST – God’s grace comes through baptism which washes away all previous sin and
puts the soul in a state of grace (salvation).
With the growth of the doctrine of original sin and the idea that baptism was the
instrument of salvation (as early as 2nd and 3rd centuries), infant baptism came into
vogue. Since death is uncertain, one should be baptized as soon as possible to
wash away the infection of original sin.
NOTE: Baptism is necessary for membership in the church. It is administered to both infants
and adults by poring and all baptized persons are considered church members.
SECOND – Penance is necessary to take care of post-baptismal sins, though confession
to a priest, who offers absolution and assigns satisfaction.
Though God forgives the eternal punishment of the penitent, certain temporal
penalties remain which must be satisfied as the priest directs. If adequate
satisfaction is not made in this life, it must be completed in a place called
purgatory.
THIRD – The Roman Catholic view of the Lord’s Supper became fixed by the Fourth
Lateran Council in 1215, in a belief called transubstantiation.
At the words of consecration by the priest a miracle is wrought by the power of
God, so that while the “accidents” of bread and wine (taste, shape and the like)
remain watered, their “substance” is transformed into the body and blood of
Christ.
This sacrament is considered to be the continuation of the Incarnation, the
repetition of the passion, the source of spiritual up-building to the recipient and
the evidence of his union with Christ.
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FORTH – Confirmation serves as a source of spiritual strength to live the Christian life.
FIFTH – Extreme unction, often called last rites, involves anointing a person with “holy
oil” by the priest, giving the person grace in the face of death and preparing his
soul for the next life.
SIXTH – Is the sacrament of marriage that gives a couple divine aid to fulfill the
Christian purpose of marriage.
SEVENTH – Ordination transmits apostolic authority by the laying on of the bishop’s
hands to the one being ordained, enabling that person to dispense the sacraments.
Did everyone agree with what was taking place in what we call the Roman Catholic
Church? NO, because from the early years of Christianity there were differences which would
result in a split between Eastern and Western Christianity. The EAST was more mystical while
the WEST was more practical minded. There was rivalry between the Bishop of Rome and the
Patriarch of Constantinople. Rome used unleavened bread in the Lord’s supper while
Constantinople used leavened bread; Rome allowed only bishops to administer confirmation;
Constantinople allowed priest to do so. Rome added a word to the Nicene Creed which taught
that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son (Filoque). There were differences
about how to observe lent. Finally, Patriarch Michael Cerularius (1043-1058) and Pope Leo IX
(1049-1054 excommunicated each other in 1054, and Roman Catholicism and Eastern
Orthodoxy went their separate ways.
In addition to the East-West split, there were various dissenting groups which arose from
time to time protesting developments within Christendom. As a result of the Renaissance, the
growth of nationalism, an may other factors, these movements resulted in the Protestant
Reformation which will be divided into several phases, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Radical,
and the Anglican.
SUMMARY
Roman Catholicism
1. The Roman Catholic Church dates its beginnings to the moment of Christ’s selection of
Peter as guardian of the keys of heaven & earth … and as chief of the apostles, and it
claims this fisherman as its first Pope.
2. The Roman Catholic Church gained its authority and power when it arose as the only
body strong enough to rule after the fall of the city of Rome in 410.
3. The 1st mention of the term Catholic (universal) Church was made y Ignatius about 110115 A.D.
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4. Augustine deeply influenced the Roman Catholic theological and philosophical structure,
and he gave the papacy its finest justification and defense. He left it strong enough to
give crowns or deny them to Europe’s kings.
5. As time went on there came the temptations of power and prosperity from within the
church and opposition to its growing power and prosperity from without.
6. Roman Catholic scholars admit there were corrupt individuals within the church, that
many of its members had sinned and that some of its leadership had done wrong and
some type of reform was necessary. So, actually, reform was under way before the
Reformation broke out.
7. Martin Luther was a catholic reformer before he became a protestant and because of him
the Roman Catholic Church suffered its most fateful division.
8. Two other reasons for the revolt: First – the growth of nationalism and secularism … the
ambitions of political princes and rulers who had great personal ambitions who wanted
no interference from the church, Second – The revival of the Greek and Roman pagan
influences and emphases.
9. The 1st Roman Catholic diocese (group of churches) on this side of the Atlantic was
establish in Greenland in 1125 … the first permanent parish in America was at St.
Augustine, Florida in 1565.
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