Review Guide for Western Civilization I Fall 2012 Final Exam
Historical Approaches
Positivist historians argue that one must collect tremendous amounts of data and only use that data to
make historical interpretations.
New Historians argue that one must use data derived from other disciplines to “fill in the gaps” in the
historical record. This way, one can focus historical analysis on the lives of everyday people more than
on important figures.
Postmodernist scholars argue that all literary sources are flawed because of the biases of their authors.
Therefore, postmodernist history is a literary critical approach.
Historians generally argue that Western Civilization began in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Most historians argue that the first civilization arose in Mesopotamia. The first civilization was Sumerian
civilization.
Ancient Mesopotamian
The ancient term for southern Mesopotamia was Sumeria, while the ancient term for northern
Mesopotamia was Assyria.
The Sumerians, partially because of the unpredictability of their rivers, and partially because of their
proneness to attack, developed a negative view of their gods. Their religion revolved around satisfying
the gods rather than moral behavior. The predictable nature of the Nile River, coupled with protection
from attack (Mediterranean and deserts) led the Egyptians to develop a positive view of their gods and
the afterlife.
The world's first writing system was cuneiform. It was developed by the Sumerians and used for 3,000
years.
A city-state is a city and its surrounding territory that acts like an independent country. The initial
leaders in Suemria were priests because of their important role in intermediating between humans and
the gods. Eventually, military strongmen called lugals pushed their way into power. Each city-state, thus,
came under control of its own king.
An empire is created when one group conquers previously independent peoples and keeps them under
their control.
The first empire in Western history was created by Sargon of Akkad. His vast empire encompassed most
of Mesopotamia and included Sumeria. The legend of his birth describes Sargon being floated down a
river in a basket to protect him from harm.
The Amorites/Old Babylonians created an empire after Sargon. Their greatest leader was Sargon, who
created the west's first great legal code, the Code of Hammurabi. It contained 272 laws and
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incorporated the concept of "an eye for an eye." Though it is a "modern" law code in that it often sought
to protect the welfare of the people, it also treated people differently based on social status.
The earliest great epic poem of western history is the Epic of Gilgamesh. It describes the adventures of a
great Sumerian king who discovers that true immortality derives from one’s accomplishments in life. It
includes the story of a great flood and an immortal Noah-like figure. The version we study was written in
cuneiform and dates to Assyrian times (c. 8th century B.C.E.), indicating the enduring nature of this
myth.
Egyptians
Egyptian civilization was the longest enduring civilization of the ancient Near East.
Famous Egyptian artifacts included 1) the Stele of Narmer (tells us about King Menes, who united Lower
and Upper Egypt, thus starting Egyptian history), 2) the Book of the Dead (a text that helps the dead get
to the afterlife), and 3) the Rosetta Stone (helped us learn hieroglyphics).
During Egypt's Old Kingdom, the pharaohs became god-kings, and the Egyptians built the pyramids.
During the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians began burying their pharaohs in underground tombs, such as
the Valley of the Kings, and temple priesthoods became very powerful. During the New Kingdom, Egypt
built an empire.
The discovery of King Tutankhamen’s tomb is one of the most important finds in the history of Egyptian
archaeology because King Tut’s tomb remained undisturbed until it was discovered in the early 20th
century.
Egypt's greatest pharaoh may have been Ramses II. He fought the Hittites to a standstill at the Battle of
Kadesh in 1274 B.C.E. Evidence indicates that he may have been the pharaoh in power during the time
of the Hebrew Exodus. He built many great structures, including the great cliff temples of Abu Simbel
near the boundary between Nubia and Egypt. He lived into his 90s.
The most admired ancient Egyptian temple is the Temple of Hatshepsut.
The Egyptians fought the Hittites (from Turkey) in the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C.E.). The war ended in
what was essentially a standstill. The world's first peace treaty may have been signed soon after the
battle. The main impact of the military conflict between the Egyptians and HIttites was that it allowed
smaller kingdoms to develop and thrive for a time. Two of the most significant of these kingdoms
included Phoenicia and Israel.
Egyptian history ended when Octavian Caesar defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra as a result of the
Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E.
Phoenicians
Phoenicia was a trading kingdom located in what's now Lebanon. It traded many goods, but is most
known for manufacturing a purple dye made from many murex snails. The Phoenicians established
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many colonies, including Carthage in northern Africa (modern Tunis, Tunisia). When the Phoenicians
declined, Carthage dominated its own empire in the Western Mediterranean. The Romans fought
Carthage for control of the Western Mediterranean region.
The English alphabet derives in great part from the alphabet of the Phoenicians, a trading kingdom
located north of what's now Israel. It was known for trading a purple dye and founding Carthage, Rome's
greatest enemy in the Western Mediterranean region.
The Hebrews and the Kingdom of Israel
Languages that have their origin in Arabia are called Semitic languages. Arabic and Hebrew are Semitic
languages.
Languages that have their linguistic origin in the Caucasus region north of the Black Sea are called IndoEuropean languages.
Jews relive their history in their holidays. For example, during Passover, Jews symbolically relives the
story of the Exodus. The Exodus refers to the Heberws' flight from Egypt.
Abraham is the patriarch (father, or founder) of Judaism. He is the first prophet (person who transmits a
message from God to humans). Moses is the most important prophet.
The most important part of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is the Torah (Five Books of Moses).
King David is one of the most important kings of ancient Israel. He defeated the Philistines, united the
Twelve Tribes of Israel under his strong leadership (created a strong kingdom), and established
Jerusalem as the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Israel.
King Solomon was the son of King David who ruled Israel during a wealthy time in its history, He built the
First Temple of Jerusalem (Temple of Solomon).
Important holy sites in Jerusalem include 1) the Western or Wailing Wall (holiest site for Jews), 2) the
Dome of the Rock (holy to both Christians and Muslims), and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (holiest
site for Christians). The Western Wall is the remnant of a retaining wall that used to surround the
Temple Mount, on top of which was the location of both Jewish temples. The Dome of the Rock sits over
the rock upon which Jews and Christians believe Abraham was willing to sacrifice his son Isaac. It is also
the place where Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to heaven. Christians believe that Jesus was
crucified and entombed at the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Ancient Greeks
The first civilization in Greece was Minoan Civilization, which was located on the island of Crete, the
southernmost island in Greece. Its most famous site was its palace complex at Knossos, which had as
many as 1500 rooms with few connecting hallways. This intricate layout, coupled with images of bulls all
over the complex, may have given rise to the Myth of the Minotaur, a story of a half-man, half-gull
creature killed by the demi-god Theseus in a labyrinth below the palace. Though it may have been a
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peaceful society, as indicated by frescoes in the palace and a lack of fortifications on the island,, recent
evidence of human sacrifice may demonstrate otherwise.
Our greatest sources of information about Mycenaean and Dark Age Greeks are Homer's Iliad and
Odyssey, which were written down in around 725 B.C.E.
The ancient Greek concept of arete means "excellence" and applies to excellence in all areas of life. The
term kleos aphthiton means "undying glory." Greeks learned about these and other important Greek
values in the Iliad and the Odyssey.
The Iliad traces the moral development of the hero Achilles.
The Mycenaeans replaced the Minoans as the dominant power in Greece by the 1400s B.C.E. The
Mycenaeans lived in settlements focused around hilltop fortresses called citadels. Their burial sites
indicate that they were a very warlike people. The gold Death Mask of Agamemnon is probably the most
famous Mycenaean artifact.
Philosophy began when thinkers began explaining the natural world without referring to the gods. The
father of Western philosophy was Thales, who argued that water is the primordial element in the
universe. This means that water is the base element from which all other things are made. Though
philosophy first focused on finding the nature of things in the universe, some philosophers eventually
began focusing on the "deep thoughts" we now associate with philosophy.
The most famous Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates taught moral
philosophy, was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens, and was sentenced to kill himself. He didn't
write anything.
Socrates used a relentless form of questioning to make others see the errors in their arguments. This
relentless form of questioning is called elenchus and is the basis of cross-examination in our legal
system.
We learn about Socrates through Plato's Dialogs. Plato disliked democracy because it had resulted in
Socrates' death (Plato was a student of Socrates). He argued that societies should be led by philosopherkings. Plato also argued that one needed to find the "eternal forms" of things using one's mind rather
than one's senses because one's senses were misleading. Plato explained this idea using his famous
Allegory of the Cave.
Unlike Plato, Aristotle argued that one had to collect lots of data using one's senses and carefully classify
and categorize that information before drawing conclusions. He and his students did careful studies of
the constitutions of many city-states, including Athens (Athenaion Politeia). Aristotle is our greatest
source of information on Athens' government.
Athens' government became its most democratic under Pericles, Athens' greatest statesman. Athens'
government was a direct democracy. It included a Council of 500 that set the agenda for the Athenian
ecclesia (assembly). and chose people for most government jobs by lottery. What made it even more
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democratic was that people were paid for voting, serving on juries, and serving in government offices.
Democracy had its negative aspects as well. Athenians, for example, could vote to exile an Athenian
citizen for ten years.
Early Greek sculpture and temple styles derive from Egypt. Most Greek statues were made of bronze
because of its ability to hold its shape when cast and because it was easy to transport.
The most admired temple of Classical Greece was the Parthenon. It was designed with many curved
lines to give all lines the appearance of being perfectly straight.
Ancient Romans
The legend of the founding of Rome is recounted in the famous epic poem written by Virgil called the
Aeneid.
Rome was founded in c. 753 B.C.E. From 753 to 509 B.C.E., it was ruled by Etruscan kings. The Roman
Republic lasted for about the next 500 years (from 509 to 31 B.C.E.). At the end of the Republic (from
about 133 to 31 B.C.E.), the Roman Empire experienced a number of civil wars. The Roman Empire
lasted about 500 years (from 31 B.C.E. to 476 C.E.) and began with the reign of Octavian
Caesar/Autustus. From 27 B.C.E. to 180 C.E. is the period called the Pax Romana, a period of relative
peace, prosperity, and stability within the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire reached its height in 117
C.E. when Trajan conquered Dacia (Romania). The Third Century Crisis refers to major economic
problems and violence that characterized the period from about 235 to 284 C.E. Diocletian and
Constantine stalled the decline of the Roman Empire in the late 200s and early 300s C.E. Germanic
peoples gradually took over parts of the Roman empire by the time the last Roman emperor was
removed from power and not replaced in 476 C.E.
The Latin term res publica means "a public thing" and means a government run by the people. It is the
origin of the term republic.
During the early part of the Roman Republic, a political struggle occurred between plebeians (common
people) and patricians (wealthy people with important family names). The plebeians gained power at
the expense of the patricians. The plebeians, for example, gained the right to form a Council of the Plebs
(common people's assembly). Eventually its laws became binding on all citizens. The office of tribune
was also created. Tribunes could veto the actions of assemblies or magistrates that violated the rights of
the people.
The Roman Republic was successful as long as people followed the mos maiorem ("way of the
ancestors"). Once people violated this unwritten constitution, political violence broke out and a period
of intense civil wars began lasting 100 years from 133 B.C.E. to 31 B.C.E.
Rome gained control of the Western Mediterranean region via its defeat of Carthage in the Punic wars,
which occurred from 264 to 146 B.C.E.
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The figure who won the civil war among the members of the Roman Republic’s First Triumvirate was
Julius Caesar. He was eventually killed because he had himself made dictator for life.
Julius Caesar's adopted heir Octavian Caesar won the war among the members of the Second
Triumvirate. He never directly declared war on Marc Antony, one of the other triumvirs. Instead, he
declared war on Cleopatra, Marc Antony's lover. After defeating Marc Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian
became the most powerful man in the Roman Empire.
Octavian Caesar was given the title Augustus in 27 B.C.E. Because he didn't want to be assassinated, he
ruled as princeps ("first citizen"). This implied that he was working within the old republican system of
government. In reality, during the first years of his reign, he moved to concentrate political and military
power in his own hands. He ruled for 45 years from 31 B.C.E. to 14 C.E. His method of rule set
precedents that paved the way for the Pax Romana.
The Pax Romana refers to the 200-year period of Roman history beginning with the reign of Octavian
Caesar/Augustus that was characterized by relative peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest size during the reign of the emperor Trajan, wo conquered Dacia
(Romania) by 117 C.E.
Much of the 3rd century C.E. in the Roman world was characterized by severe economic problems and
extreme violence. There were as many as 25 emperors during the period 235 to 284 C.E.
The reigns of Diocletian and Constantine brought some stability back to the Roman world for a short
time in the late 300s and early 400s.
Diocletian divided the Roman Empire to make it easier to rule (tetrarchy). His division of the empire into
two major parts would eventually become a fixture of the Roman world.
The eastern half of the Roman Empire would outlast the Roman Empire in the west by 1000 years and
came to be called the Byzantine Empire by historians.
The Roman emperor Constantine presided over the Council of Nicea, which decreed that Jesus is both
human and divine.
Though the last western Roman emperor was removed from power and not replaced in 476 C.E., Roman
civilization continued to flourish in Spain and Italy for two centuries.
The main argument in Sir Edward Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776 to
1788) is that the Roman Empire fell because of a loss in civic virtue caused by the rise of Christianity.
In Muhammad and Charlemagne, historian Henri Pirenne argued that Roman civilization really ended
with the expansion of Islam in the 8th century C.E.
Roman Catholicism
The Roman Catholic Church modeled its hierarchy after that of the government of the Roman Empire.
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According to the Doctrine of Petrine Succession, popes argued that they were successors to the Apostle
Peter, the first Bishop of Rome.
Late Antiquity
The period called Late Antiquity is a period overlapping the end of the Roman Empire and the Early
Middle Ages. It lasted from 300 to 650 C.E.
During Late Antiquity, the Roman legacy, Germanic culture, and Roman Catholic beliefs blended to form
the culture of medieval Europe.
Justinian I was the greatest leader of the Byzantine Empire, the eastern part of the Roman Empire that
outlasted the Roman Empire in the west by 1,000 years (476 to 1453 C.E.). Justinian I reconquered much
of the Roman Empire in the West, stopped a major revolt (Nika Revolt), rebuilt the Hagia Sophia into the
greatest Christian church of the Early Middle Ages, and ordered the compilation of a great legal code
(the Code of Justinian) that influenced later European legal codes.
One infamous Germanic tradition that persisted during the Early Middle Ages was Trial by Ordeal. It was
a Frankish tradition used during the Early Middle Ages to determine the guilt or innocence of the
accused. It was used when questioning and other methods of finding the truth failed. The authorities
believed that God would heal or save those who suffered the ordeal. Contrary to popular belief, it was
not used very often.
The Franks during the early Middle Ages
The Merovingian King Clovis was the founder of the French Christian nation. He founded the Frankish
Empire. His name is the origin of the royal name Louis.
The Carolingian King Charlemagne expanded the Frankish Empire to its greatest size. It included many
areas, most significantly France and Germany. As a reward for restoring the pope to power, the pope
gave Charlemagne the title Holy Roman Emperor (he is not the first true Holy Roman Emperor,
however). Charlemagne promoted major artistic and intellectual developments as part of what
historians call the Carolingian Renaissance.
The general territorial boundaries of France and Germany originated with the division of the Carolingian
Empire in the 9th century C.E.
England during the Early Middle Ages
The Romans ruled Britain from 43 B.C.E. to 410 C.E. After the Romans abandoned Britain in 410 C.E.,
Germanic Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Vikings migrated into England.
The Dark Age (c. 700 to 1000 C.E.)
Muslims, Vikings, and Magyars attacked Europe during the Dark Age.
The Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire formally began in 962 C.E. with the reign of Otto I. Modern Germany was the
core of the empire. Frederick II (1194 to 1250 C.E.) was arguably the most powerful Holy Roman
emperor. The empire ended with the abdication of Francis II in 1806 C.E.
The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648 C.E.) was a major European war that involved many powers and
began over differences between Catholics and Protestants. Ultimately, countries' political goals
overshadowed the religious roots of the war. The most significant impact of the war was that the region
that's now Germany was severely weakened, politically and economically, for two centuries. From this
point on the Holy Roman Emperor was very weak.
Spain during the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period
Muslims conquered Spain in the 700s. The Spanish city of Cordoba became an important Muslim center.
The Reconquista refers to the period from 722 to 1492 C.E. when the Spanish gradually expelled
Muslims from Spain.
It is arguable that Spain possessed the most powerful European empire for most of the 16th century.
Spain had colonial possessions in Europe, but its most valuable possessions were in the Americas. By the
end of 16th century, Spain was the wealthiest country in Europe, mainly because of imports, such as
gold and silver, from its imperial possessions.
Spanish kings, such as Philip II, were extremely religious. They tried to spread Roman Catholicism using
force. For example, Philip II ordered the Spanish Armada to invade England to convert the English to
Protestantism. The mission failed and much of the Spanish fleet was destroyed.
Medieval Monasticism
The earliest monks lived ascetic lives by themselves in places like deserts. Eventually, monks decided
that living in communities of monks would make it easier to devote themselves to God. By 1,000 C.E.,
the Rule of St. Benedict became the most popular regula, or rulebook, for monks. Monks made vows of
poverty, obedience, and chastity.
The Hundred Years' War (1337 to 1433 C.E.)
The Hundred Years' War marks the first effective use of gunpowder in a European war.
Medieval Russia
Viking and Slavic culture blended to form the culture of medieval Russia.
Iconoclastic Controversy
The Iconoclastic Controversy (8th and 9th centuries C.E.) refers to the dispute over whether religious
images should be used as the focus of religious worship in the Byzantine world. The Empress Irene
presided over a council which decided that the use of icons in worship was acceptable in the Byzantine
Empire.
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In 1054 C.E., The Eastern Orthodox Church split from the Roman Catholic Church over several issues,
including the issue of icons.
Crusades
The main goal of Europeans during the Crusades was to regain control of Jerusalem for Christians. There
were four major Crusades during the period from c. 1100 to 1300 C.E. Europeans gained control of
Jerusalem during the First Crusade and massacred its population. They established crusader ckingdoms
in the places they conquered.
Saladin led the Seljuk Turks as Muslims reconquered Jerusalem from the Christians in 1198 C.E.
Europeans never gained Jerusalem for Christians.
England during the High Middle Ages
The legend of Kign Arthur reached its current form in Sir Thomas Mallory's Le'Morte d'Arthur. It
developed from many sources over hundreds of years.
William, Duke of Normandy (northwestern France) conquered England in 1066 C.E. and became William
II. He immediately ordered his officials to conduct and compile a census (Domesday Book).
England's Henry II established a single royal law code for all of England called the Common Law.
Parliament was originally William II's royal council. By 1300, this royal council had evolved into a House
of Lords and House of Commons. As a result of the Glorious Revolution (1688), it is the supreme part of
the British government today.
Protestant Reformation and Renaissance
The Western concept of individualism first became fully developed during the Renaissance, which
focused on man's potential to do great things.
Petrarch, the father of Renaissance humanism, sought to find and study all Greek and Roman classics in
various locations throughout Europe. He wanted to use Roman classics to learn perfect Latin.
The statement “Christian humanists saw the spark of the divine in human beings” indicates the Christian
humanist belief that 1) humans were the children of God, 2) humans had freewill, and 3) humans were
capable of great things.
Artistic developments of the Renaissance include linear perspective drawing techniques, realistic
drawing of human anatomy, and the use of oil paints to add realistic details to skin, clothing, reflections,
etc.
Dante's Divine Comedy follows Dante's fictional journey from hell, through purgatory, to heaven.
In the Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli argued that rulers should use whatever means necessary to gain and
maintain power.
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The Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation did slow, but did not reverse the spread of Protestantism in
Europe.
Early medieval universities were groups of students and teachers seeking to bargain collectively for
things such as lower rent and food prices. Because they owned no buildings, they could threaten to
leave a city if their demands were not met.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses on the Sale
of Indulgences on the door of the University of Wittenberg Chapel.
The emphasis of Calvinism is on the doctrine of predestination, which argues that God chooses those
who go to heaven before they are even born.
Essay Questions:
Compare and contrast the geographic and cultural definitions of Western Civilization. List and explain
the characteristics that collectively define Western Civilization in your answer.
Geographic definition focuses on where the west is over time, while the cultural definition lists
and explains cultural characteristics of Western Civilization. Refer to notes.
List and explain the factors that led to the Italian Renaissance and, using specific examples, explain how
the Renaissance as a whole has shaped modern Western culture.
The crusades increased interaction with the Muslim world.
Renaissance humanism led to the discovery of ancient texts lost during the medieval period.
Merchant and banking families in Italian city-states grew wealthy from trade (i.e., Medici
family). Popes also had fortunes at their disposal. These patrons sponsored building projects, as well as
works by painters, sculptors, and writers.
One can see the influence of the Renaissance in plays (Shakespeare), neo-classical architecture,
the modern spirit of innovation, and the western focus on individual success.
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