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• Until about 1855 the words “near east” and “far east” did not refer to any particular region.
• The Crimean war (1853-56) brought a change in vocabulary with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th century.
• The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and
China.
• Thereafter, the British Empire began to give specific regional meanings to "the Near East," the Ottoman Empire.
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• In the early 20 th cent. the use of the term Middle East as a region of international affairs apparently began in diplomatic circles of the two prominent sea-powers led by British (T.E.Gordon) and American
(A.T.Mahan) quite independently of each other.
• The term "Near and Middle East," held the stage for a few years before World War I. It proved to be less acceptable to a colonial point of view that saw the entire region as one.
• With the disgrace of "Near East" in diplomatic and military circles, "Middle East" prevailed. They are not generally considered distinct regions as they were at their original definition.
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c. 4000-2000 BC
New Kingdom in Eqypt, Kingdoms in Phoenicia and
Assyria. The first thoughts on monotheism (the belief in one god) emerge. The United Kingdom of Israel and
Judah.
500-400 BC
Kingdoms in Egypt , Sumer, and Babylonia
c. 1000 BC
-
The Persian empire (present day Iran ) conquers all of the Middle
East.
Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeats the Persians and claims the Middle East.
334 BC c. 200-300 BC -
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The Romans gain control over all of the Middle East except for Persia.

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Life of Mohammed. Mohammed founds the religion of Islam, and leads the beginning of an Arab-Islamic empire that will soon hold sway over the entire Middle East.
570-632 AD
661-750 -
The Umayyad Dynasty gains control over the Arab-
Islamic empire and greatly expands its territories.
The empire spreads westward throughout North
Africa, north into Spain, and eastward to the borders of India and China.
The Abassid Dynasty, the second major one of the Arab-Islamic empire, gains control and moves the capital to Baghdad. The Middle East enjoys a prosperous period of advances in science and technology.
-
10th Century
759-1258
-
The decline in the control of the Abassids over their far-reaching empire allows the Seljuks, to gain control over much of Asia Minor and the Persian
Empire to break free.
Tales of the riches of the Middle East and a desire to reclaim the Holy
Land for Christianity inspire European kingdoms to proclaim a series of crusades against the Muslim empires of the Middle East. Though the crusades were to have some success in holding territory in the Holy
Land, their longest lasting effects were in Europe, where people were exposed to many new ideas.
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11-13th century

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The Ottoman empire gains control over Constantinople and renames
Istanbul. Earlier Turkish success grew into the Ottoman Empire which will continue to expand until it controls nearly all of the Middle East except for Iran .
-
1453
19th century -
The Muslim empires of the Middle East decline in power.
The Ottoman Empire loses territory and influence to
Russia and Austria
Muhammed Ali westernizes Egypt , asserting some independence from the
Ottoman Empire.
1805-1848
1914-1918
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-
The Ottoman Empire sides with Germany during World
War I. The resulting loss causes the empire to be broken up. Much of its territory is divided between France and
Britain, but modern day Turkey successfully defends itself against Greek invasion.

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• The field of international relations offers a variety of theoretical approaches.These include:
Structural realists : The international arena is anarchic, so states seek to promote their own interests.
Neoliberal institutionalists : Institutional arrangements can reduce tension and facilitate cooperation.
English School : There are norms of behaviour and shared conventions which regulate international relations.
Constructivists : Anarchies are multifaceted, and the formation and socialization of states explains their interests and actions
.
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Structural Realism
- In an anarchic environment, states give priority to maximizing their individual well-being (i.e. regime security )
- States are assumed to act rationally.
- Security dilemmas arise because one state’s attempt to maximise its security can provoke other states  cycle of action and response, including arms races and mistrust.
- Balancing & Bandwagoning ( i.e. Arab Cold War in the 1950s-
60s)
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

Neoliberal Institutionalists
- Focus on co-operation in anarchy, rather than conflict.
- Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Assurance Games
- Role of institutional arrangements that can foster co-operation.
- Regional organisations. (i.e.regionalism)
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

International Society & Hierarchy
- English School: Societies of states indicate certain rules and practices.
- e.g. Sovereignty: no direct interference in internal affairs of other states. But, in the
Middle East, where do ideologies like pan-Arabism and Islam fit in?
- Historical sociology, drawing on Weber and Marx.
- International governance structures.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

Constructivism
- Neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists over-emphasise role of international structures. Anarchy is but one possible outcome.
- States are conscious actors. Norms of interaction develop, and change.
- Power is more than concrete resources, it is also discursive.
- Radical constructivists expose and critique attributed meanings.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

Post-Structuralism and Post-Modernism
- Post-structuralists look to topics overlooked or set aside, to deconstruct discourses.
- Knowledge and power are linked, and these linkages must be explored in order to prevent domination.
- Post-modernists focus on meta-theory ( or paradigm) and ontology, not epistemology or methodology.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

“The Occident” is his term for the West (England, France, and the United States), and “the Orient” is the term for the romantic and misunderstood Middle East and Far East.
-The West has created a dichotomy, between the reality of the East and the romantic notion of the "Orient”.
-The Middle East and Asia are viewed with prejudice and racism. They are backward and unaware of their own history and culture.
- To fill this void, the West has created a culture, history, and future promise for them. On this framework rests not only the study of the Orient, but also the political imperialism of
Europe in the East.
( http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/orientalism.htm
)
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Quantitative Research
- Liberal democracies don’t fight each other: what implications for the Middle East?
- Militarized Interstate Disputes (MIDs): Threats and tension, but no outbreak of armed combat.
- Territorial disputes in the Middle East leading to war and MIDs.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

Power Transition Theory
- All countries have ups and downs in their relative capabilities.
- Chance of conflict rises when gap between dominant power and challengers is shrinking.
- Conflict can happen where state policies do not reflect power cycle position.
- Example: Iran-Iraq relations post-1975.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition

Conclusion
- International relations theory is driven by many theoretical debates. Structural realism has been traditionally dominant, but constructivist approaches are increasing.
- Middle East specialists have only taken on some of these discussions.
- Greater integration of IR approaches and Middle East specialisation has potential to enrich both fields.
International Relations of the Middle East, 3 rd Edition