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CHAPTER 2
pH to end
2
1. pH SCALE
A MEASURE OF THE
CONCENTRATION OF
HYDROGEN IONS IN
A SOLUTION.
• RANGES FROM
0 TO 14
3
2. ACID
• A SUBSTANCES WHEN ADDED TO WATER
INCREASES THE CONCENTRATION OF
HYDROGEN IONS.
• LOWERS THE pH
4
3. BASE
• A SUBSTANCE WHEN ADDED TO WATER
REDUCES THE CONCENTRATION OF
HYDROGEN IONS.
• RAISES THE pH
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4. BUFFER
• SUBSTANCES THAT ENABLE SOLUTIONS TO
RESIST pH CHANGES WHEN AN ACID OR BASE
IS ADDED.
• HELPS TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS, HELPS
PREVENT SUDDEN, SHARP CHANGES IN pH.
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5. pH OF 7
• THE CONCENTRATION OF H IONS AND OH
IONS IS EQUAL.
• ALSO CALLED A NEUTRAL SOLUTION
• EX: PURE WATER
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6. pH BELOW 7
• SOLUTIONS THAT HAVE MORE H IONS THAN
OH IONS (CALLED ACIDS).
• THE LOWER THE NUMBER, THE GREATER THE
ACIDITY
• EX: A STRONG ACID WILL HAVE A pH FROM 13
8
7. pH ABOVE 7
• SOLUTIONS THAT HAVE MORE OH IONS THAN
H IONS (CALLED BASES)
• ALSO CALLED ALKALINE SOLUTIONS
• THE HIGHER THE NUMBER THE MORE
ALKALINE OR BASIC THE SOLUTION
• EX: A STRONG BASE WILL HAVE A pH FROM
11-14
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8. STEPS ON THE pH SCALE
• EACH STEP REPRESENTS A FACTOR OF 10
• EX: A LITER SOLUTION WITH A pH OF 4 HAS
10 TIMES AS MANY H IONS AS A LITER
SOLUTION WITH A pH OF 5.
10
9. CARBOHYDRATES
• COMPOUNDS MADE UP OF C, H, AND O,
USUALLY IN A 1:2:1 RATIO (SEE PIC ON PAGE
45)
• PROVIDE ENERGY (MAIN SOURCE)
• USED BY PLANTS AND ANIMALS FOR
STRUCTURAL PURPOSES
• EX: SUGARS & STARCHES
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STRUCTURAL FORMULA FOR GLUCOSE
1:2:1
ratio
C:H:O
C 6
H 12
0 6
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MONOSACCHARIDE
• A SIMPLE SUGAR MOLECULE SUCH AS
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND GALACTOSE.
(CARBOHYDRATE)
SUGARS END IN OSE!
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POLYSACCHARIDE
• LARGE MOLECULES FORMED FROM
MONOSACCHARIDES (CARBOHYDRATE)
• POLY MEANS MANY S0000000 IT IS A LONG
CHAIN OF SUGARS!
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GLYCOGEN
• A POLYSACCHARIDE WHERE ANIMALS STORE
EXCESS SUGAR
• ANIMAL STARCH (CARBOHYDRATE)
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PLANT STARCH
• A POLYSACCHARIDE USED BY PLANTS TO
STORE EXCESS SUGAR, (CARBOHYDRATE)
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CELLULOSE
• A POLYSACCHARIDE MADE BY PLANTS, GIVES
PLANTS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.
• CELL WALL OF PLANTS COMPOSED OF
CELLULOSE (CARBOHYDRATE)
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10. LIPID
• MADE MOSTLY OF C, & H’S WITH JUST A FEW
O’S. (SEE PIC ON PAGE 46)
• EX:
FATS, OILS, WAXES
• NOT SOLUBLE IN WATER
• USED TO STORE ENERGY
• ARE IMPORTANT PARTS OF BIOLOGICAL (CELL)
MEMBRANES
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STRUCTURAL FORMULA FOR A LIPID
• MOSTLY C AND H’S WITH JUST A
FEW O’S
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LIPIDS
• SERVE AS WATERPROOF COVERINGS
• STEROIDS SERVE AS CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
• MADE UP OF A GLYCEROL MOLECULE
ATTACHED TO A FATTY ACID.
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11. NUCLEIC ACID
• MADE UP OF C, H, O, N, & P’S. (SEE PIC ON
PAGE 47 TOP)
• EX:
RNA & DNA
• CONSISTS OF NUCLEOTIDES
• STORE & TRANSMIT GENETIC INFORMATION
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DNA NUCLEOTIDE
SUGAR, PHOSPHATE, BASE
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NUCLEOTIDE
• THREE PARTS
• 1. A 5 CARBON SUGAR
• 2. A PHOSPHATE GROUP
• 3. A NITROGENOUS (NITROGEN CONTAINING) BASE
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RIBONUCLEIC ACID
• CONTAINS THE SUGAR RIBOSE
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DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
• CONTAINS THE SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE
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12. PROTEINS
• MADE UP OF C, H, O, & N (SEE PIC ON PAGE 47
BOTTOM)
• COMPOSED OF LONG CHAINS OF AMINO
ACIDS
• CONTROL RATES OF REACTIONS
• REGULATE CELL PROCESSES
• FORM BONE & MUSCLE
• FIGHT DISEASE
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PROTEIN
C
H
O
N
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PROTEIN
• TRANSPORT SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF
CELLS
• SERVE AS ENZYMES (end in ase)
• Ex: amylase, protease, maltase
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AMINO ACID
• COMPOUNDS WITH AN
AMINO GROUP ON ONE
END AND A CARBOXYL
GROUP ON THE OTHER END.
• ARE APPROXIMATELY 20 DIFFERENT AMINO
ACIDS FOUND IN NATURE.
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ENZYME
• A PROTEIN THAT SPEEDS UP CHEMICAL
REACTIONS BY LOWERING THE ACTIVATION
ENERGY.
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13. CHEMICAL REACTION
• A PROCESS THAT CHANGES ONE SET OF
CHEMICALS INTO ANOTHER SET OF
CHEMICALS.
• ALWAYS INVOLVE CHANGES IN CHEMICAL
BONDS.
• INVOLVES BREAKING BONDS AND FORMING
NEW BONDS.
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14. REACTANTS
• ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS THAT ENTER
INTO A CHEMICAL REACTION
• FOUND ON THE LEFT SIDE OF THE ARROW IN
A CHEMICAL EQUATION
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REACTANTS OR
STARTING MATERIALS OR
RAW MATERIALS
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15. PRODUCTS
• THE ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS PRODUCED
BY A CHEMICAL REACTION.
• FOUND ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE ARROW IN
A CHEMICAL EQUATION
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PRODUCTS
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16. ARROW
YIELDS WHICH MEANS
• READ AS
PRODUCES
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17. CHEMICAL BONDS
• FORMED OR BROKEN WHEN ENERGY IS
RELEASED OR ABSORBED
• INVOLVES CHANGES IN ENERGY
• RELEASING OF ENERGY OFTEN OCCURS
SPONTANEOUSLY
• ABSORBS ENERGY WHICH REQUIRES ENERGY
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18. ACTIVATION ENERGY
• THE ENERGY NEEDED TO START A CHEMICAL
REACTION
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19. CATALYST
• A SUBSTANCE THAT SPEEDS UP THE RATE OF A
CHEMICAL REACTION.
• WORKS BY LOWERING THE ACTIVATION
ENERGY
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20. ENZYMES
• PROTEINS THAT ACT AS BIOLOGICAL CATALYST
• USED BY CELLS TO SPEED UP CHEMICAL
REACTIONS.
• WORK BY LOWERING THE ACTIVATION
ENERGY
• VERY SPECIFIC (LOCK AND KEY)
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21. SUBSTRATE
• THE REACTANTS OF AN ENZYME CATALYZED
REACTION
• ATTACH TO THE ENZYME AT ACTIVE SITE
• FORM ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX
• ENZYMES HELPS TO CONVERT THE SUBSTRATE
INTO THE PRODUCT.
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ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX
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