Psychology of Communication
Matthew Bresnahan
COMM 125
Spring 2013
This quote by the late Steve Jobs encapsulates how we as a society view life. We live in
own little world of apprehension. This idea can apply to our social systems, motivation, selfimage, and personality. We are the only animal to have foreknowledge of death, yet we still are
afraid of taking that leap and following your heart. What do people have to lose? They are living
on this blue marble we call Earth for only a limited time, so why not take a chance and learn
more about yourself in the process. Take life and make with it what you can—just take it and
live.
Table of Contents
Communication
Models……………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Creativity………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Social systems ................................................................................................................................. 7
Burke & Drama ............................................................................................................................. 10
Mind & Brain ................................................................................................................................ 14
Abstraction .................................................................................................................................... 17
Memory, Attitude, Perception....................................................................................................... 20
Meaning ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Personality..................................................................................................................................... 27
Motivation ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Persuasion ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Media & Mind............................................................................................................................... 34
Communication Apprehension ..................................................................................................... 36
Communication Competence ........................................................................................................ 39
Assertiveness................................................................................................................................. 41
Your Social Reality ...................................................................................................................... 44
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Communication Models
As human beings, we are social creatures. Communication is the driving force behind
everything we do. Communication can be verbal or nonverbal expressed through words,
symbols, and gestures. Symbol referent is the thing that a symbol (as a word or sign) stands for.
To understand the psychology of communication, you need to understand how communication
works. This can be illustrated through communication models.
Components of Communication Model
 Source is a person who sends the message. This message can either be verbal or
nonverbal conveyed through words, symbols, or gestures.
 Encoding- converting ideas into words and gestures – into a code that might be
understood by the receiver.
 Message- The key idea that is trying to be conveyed.
 Channel- The medium (TV, radio, air) by which the message is delivered and received.
 Receiver- The recipient of the message.
 Decoding- translating the code, such as words and gestures, into ideas
 Noise- anything that interferes in the communication process between a speaker and an
audience. Noise can be external or internal, and it can disrupt the communication process
at any point.
 Feedback- response to the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or
non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of
memos and reports.1
Linear Model
The linear model is where communication occurs in a line. In this model, the sender sends a
message and the receiver receives messages.
1
" Communication Models". N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.
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Interactive model
The interactive model improves on the linear model by adding the concept of feedback
allowing for the receiver to respond to the message. This model does not account for messages
being sent simultaneously between sender and receiver.
Transitional model
Under this model, messages are simultaneous. It also implies that past behaviors and
goals for the future feed into present communication, so the influences in the communication
process transcend the current situation. Past conversations affect the meaning of current
conversations. For example, a conversation with a friend will use symbols and gestures agreed
upon in past conversations.
For more information on communication models, please refer to:
http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm
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Creativity
Creativity is the way of putting ideas together in a new way that is fresh and interesting.
Everyone is creative. A common misconception of creativity is that it has to be unique to be
creative, but this is not always the case. As a journalist, I put information together in a way that
is fresh and interesting, but this information is not necessarily new; it is just repackaged. Every
article I write is a work of creativity.
The Creative Process
 Initiation- initial idea
 Preparation- gathering knowledge by reading literature. Increase your knowledge base by
getting basic training
 Incubation- gestation attracts ideas and perception
 Illumination- It all comes together.
 Action- process of doing. This is critical. Do it NOW!
Creativity is the struggle of battling old ideas (retention) vs. new ideas (variation).You have
to pick between ideas to find the best one (selection). You might gather ideas and information
from opposing ideas to get to this formula: thesis + antithesis = synthesis. Ideas are constantly
flowing that it becomes a battle between organization and disorganization between ideas. Both
forces can work together actually like in the concept of yin/yang.
Factors that foster creativity
 Action
 Relaxed social relations
 Mental freedom
 Awareness of variety
 Constructive argumentation
 Training
 Exercise
Factors that inhibit creativity
 Stagnation
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 Uptight social relations
 Mental imprisonment
 Narrow realm of awareness
 Groupthink
 Trained incapacities
 Habitual laziness
For more information on creativity, please refer to:
http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/creativity/define.htm
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Social Systems
A social system is when people are interacting within groups. We, as human beings, are
social creatures and have an insatiable need to communicate with one another. The way people
are communicating is dynamic or changing constantly. Whether it is face-to-face, by telephone,
email, instant messaging or social media, it is still communication among people.
Communication is vital because that is how information is passed from person to person. Social
media illuminates what we associate with. Everyone’s social system is different and unique by
the people we know and the relationships we have with them. The interactions I have with him
will be different than interactions he has with his friends because our closer relationship affects
the context of our interactions.
 Different Systems
o Dyads
o Groups
o Organizations
o Communities
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Levels of a system
We tend to look at social systems as a whole, but aspects of every social system can be
broken down into three basic categories
 Subsystems: A system within a system. An example of this would be the
Communications department.
 System: A group of people within a larger entity such as: all the academic departments of
Edinboro University.
 Environment: The large entity itself, Edinboro University
System concepts
 Interdependence: The relationship between parts in a relationship. Depending on how
interdependent the parts are of one another, they can either be tightly or loosely coupled.
If they are truly relying on one another, they are coupled tightly. If the parts are rather
independent of one another, they are coupled loosely.
 Homeostasis: The normal operating range of a system. This is when an relationship is at
optimal conditions.
 Feedback: The movement away or towards homeostasis. Positive feedback in a system is
deviation amplifying or moving away from homeostasis. Negative feedback in a system
is deviation counteracting or moving closer to homeostasis.
 Entropy: The system disintegrates. It is changing constantly.
 Negentropy: The system reintegrates. This is when the system fixes any problems it may
have
 Nonsummativity: The whole is great than the sum of its parts’
 Calibration: This is system maintenance. We monitor the system and correct any of its
problems over time.
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 Permeability: How difficult is it to gain membership into a system. There might be
borders for entry such as financial, which means you would have to pay money to gain
membership to the system.
For more information on social systems, please refer to:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system
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Kenneth Burke and Drama
Kenneth Burke was a philosopher and rhetorical literary critic that tried to explain what
he thought humans were, what was wrong with them, their motives, and world views. We start
with their world view or orientations.
Burke’s Three Orientations
 Magic – Things occur due to mysterious sources and superstition. I have this world view
when I am watching a sporting event. My hope is that sitting in the same seat and
wearing the same clothes as the previous time it will make the team do well. I know this
way of thinking is not logical or reasonable, but I cannot help but subscribe to this world
view when I am watching the sporting event.
 Religion – Describes reason for things happening as divine intervention. I know a
majority who are any bit religious understand this world view. You want to believe in a
higher power who can fix any of your aliments. When I think of this world view, I think
of the group of people who will try to pray the aliment away, rather than use modern
medicine to combat it.
 Science- Use of own senses as real interpretation of what is going on. This is done
through observation and research. This world view applies to someone who wants a
tangible explanation of things through facts, rather than something that cannot be
explained or divine intervention.
I believe there is a time and place for all three orientations; it just depends on the
situation. There is just some times where people want to believe in a certain orientation,
even if the orientation is flawed.
Burke on humans
Burke believed since humans are bodies that use language he viewed them as:
 The symbol-making, symbol-using, symbol-misusing animal. This is because connecting
the mind with symbols can be deceptive. That is why he views humans as the symbolmisusing animal.
 Inventor of the negative- Humans created the concept. There is a school of thought that
everything in the universe exists positively.
 Separated from our natural condition by instruments of our own making – As we become
more dependent on our technology, we have grown apart from nature by our own doing
Evidence of this separation can be seen in the fact that we have housing, technology, and
clothing. Humans did so to advance their societies and gradually make them more
industrialized. It is the way we define ourselves in relation to nature. I honestly could not
see myself without access to this technology. I am dependent on some of this technology
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whether it is my power wheelchair or my laptop, which I use in place of physically
writing because I am not able to do that.
 Goaded by the spirit of hierarchy- We are so driven by a sense of order that we view
objects and things in that way.
 Acquiring foreknowledge of death- We change the way live because we know we are
going to die before we actually die. An example of this would be creating a will.
 Rotten with perfection- This is an oxymoron. In the attempt to create the perfect order,
we have created a lot of pollution or rottenness. For example, even though the Industrial
Revolution advanced our societies and was positive for us economically; it left cities like
Pittsburgh in worse shape than they were before. It polluted the air and water and it took
a lot of time, money, and energy to get the city of Pittsburgh back on track.
Three Key Motives
Burke outlined three motives that drive humans’ actions and their life. These motives are what
move us moment to moment.
 Order (Hierarchy) - We are driven by order. In fact, humans have a rage for order. They
always have put their objects and ideas in a hieratical structure. In our culture, our
schedules are so time sensitive, but in doing so we are telling ourselves how things
should be. Order is a system of pieties, which is a sense of right and wrong. Through
order, we follow the laws, but order is constructed socially, so we make it up, then we
believe in it. I have never smoked a cigarette in my life because my sense of order, which
I have constructed socially, has viewed it as wrong. Therefore, I believe it is wrong
 The Secret (Mystery) - We are always looking for answers to life’s questions. We are
motivated to find them. There are mysteries with all thinking that is why we motivated to
find the answers. Even though humans are flawed beings and cannot be omniscient, they
are still going to find answer to as many mysteries as they can. Later in this handbook, I
ponder one of life’s mysterious questions of what gives my life meaning.
 The Kill (Transcendence) - The saying survival of the fittest applies to this key motive
perfectly. Ever since humans have existed on this planet, it has been kill or be killed. In
order for the humans to survive, they had to kill other creatures. In that way, we seek
transcendence. Ever since then, it is been an instinct. This is why people bully others,
because putting others down gives them a boost. In their minds, how wrong others are
about what they are doing makes them feel right. Humans come together by separating
into groups. For example, I separated from the whole class to create a small study group
to pass a hard class. In this way, I achieved transcendence.
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Purgative Guilt Cycle
Every once in a while, I feel guilty about how a situation transpired. While I am feeling
guilty, I am going through a seven-step guilt cycle. The seven steps are: 1. Order, 2. Breach,
3. Guilt, 4. Victimage (blaming others) or 5.Mortification (blaming self), 6. Catharsis
(pressure release), and 7. Redemption.
Whenever something would break at our house, I would often go through this cycle. The
majority of the time I chose victimage in an attempt to shift the blame onto one of my siblings,
because humans are constantly trying to shift guilt. Guilt is a huge part of social order and social
construction.
Drama
We create our realities through our various social systems and various individual dramas.
Burke is a dramatist. He views the whole world as a stage. The story of your life is a drama. You
are the actor and producer of it. You construct it.
People act according to their meanings formed in social interactions; this is called
symbolic interaction, which plays a part in our individual dramas. You develop a frame of
reference through symbolic interaction. I find some validity in Ernest Bormann’s view of our
individual dramas. I think we create fantasies in our interactions, complete with characters, plots,
motivations, and scenes, in order to tell a good story. I think it is human nature to want to tell
stories and tales, because while we are interacting, we want messages or stories to either inform
or entertain the listener. We also co-produce impressions through “facework”, which is the
positive social value attached to the role you play. The ego is attached. Bormann also discusses
the concept of front stage (things said out loud in front of you) and backstage (what goes on
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outside your awareness). The backstage may be used as an example of talking behind someone’s
back. I do not like it when people are talking about me behind my back. I view it as the
coward’s way to voice your opinion about someone.
Burke’s definition of humans, their motives and orientations allow us to reflect to see if
we fall under what he described or not. It allows us to be cognizant of these issues and move
forward so we might become better people. Life is one big show you have got to let play out and
see what you can make of it until the final curtain falls.
For more information on Burke and Drama, please refer to:
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/storytelling/articles/burke_five_elements.htm
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Mind and Brain
Like most people before this class, I carted the misconception that mind and brain were
synonymous terms. I always heard them used interchangeably, so I thought they were one in the
same, but there are some stark differences between the two of them.
Brain
When we think of the brain, we think of the physical structure in our head taking care of
our body’s processes. George Herbert Mead would call this the “I” part of the brain, or the
individual. The brain is responsible for perception. Your brain is always ascending and
descending sensory information to and from the brain. The brain has to do the neurons, structures
and lobes responsible for human activity as shown in the picture below.
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Every person has a different brain. All the neurons in the brain are of the individual. My
brain is different than other people’s brains because cerebral palsy has affected my
brain. In spastic cerebral palsy, there has been damage to the motor cortex in the brain that
affects the nervous system and control over muscle groups.2 Even though I can control better
than some of the people with the same disability, I experience muscle spasms and a sensitive
startle reflex.
Left and right brain
Your brain is made up of two parts: the left brain and the right brain. The left brain
controls the right side of your body and is responsible for: language, verbal, math, and science,
while your right brain controls the left side of your body and is responsible for: visual, spatial,
and musical perception. Even so, your brain does not really deal with the thoughts that are the
responsibility of your mind.
Mind
Our minds are the collective thoughts. Mead would describe this part of the brain as the
“me” side and with good reason, because the “me” is collective just as the mind is. Even though
our thoughts are individually our own that does not make them original. Every thought we have
originates somewhere else, and we take it in and process it for ourselves with our own
schematas. We can adapt and change the ideas we see and hear using our schematas, so while
our interpretation of the ideas may not be original ideas, they are unique. Every time someone
interviews a musical performer, they ask them what some of their influences were. These
influences are the ones who originally came up with the idea usually, but the performer used
their collective schematas to adapt the idea to make it their own.
Sigmund Freud’s view of psyche
The totality of the mind is the psyche. Sigmund Freud broke down the human psyche into
three parts:
2
Durkee, Debra. "How Does Cerebral Palsy Affect the Brain?" Essortment. Essortment, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.
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 Id - impulse toward fulfilling instinctual needs; pleasure principle; libido; “wild child”
 Superego - acts to secure conformity of the ego to parental, social, and moral standards
 Ego - Consciousness; resolves conflicts between id and superego
Freud’s view of the psyche has some validity. The three components to the psyche influence
our impulses and thoughts more than we realize. If left alone, the id is certain to get me into
trouble, because all it seeks is pleasure with no regard for societal norms. We conform more to
society than we realize.
Working together
Even though the mind and brain are two separate concepts they work together. Much like
the yin and yang, you cannot separate the two; you need both. The structure and perceptions the
brain makes helps the mind make connections of thoughts and turn them into unique creations.
Whenever you think of anything, your mind and brain will be working together to make it
possible.
For more information on mind and brain, please refer to:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLmN5Bg8nHI
http://www.essortment.com/cerebral-palsy-affect-brain-26946.html
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Abstraction
Abstraction is the act of considering something as a general quality or characteristic,
apart from concrete realities, specific objects, or actual instances.3 Our reality is constructed
through language, but that reality is not the actual reality. Rather, it is our constructions of what
reality is. I know that may sound confusing, and sound like The Riddler from the Batman
franchise, but it makes sense. Our constructions are based off of perceptions we have of what is
going on all around us. Every word we possess in our vast vocabularies is constructed and
interpreted differently. As we begin to make sense or abstract our reality, we are abstracting
further and further away from the reality of things. Alfred Korzybski broke this down into four
parts as part of his Structural Differential (pictured below). These four parts are:
 Event
 Object
 Descriptive
 Inference
3
"Abstraction." Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.
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We start with the reality of things, which we are a part of, or as Korzybski refers to as the
Event. The reality is actually separate beyond us. We must view our constructions of reality and
ask ourselves what is going on. Next comes the Object, which deals with our subjective level of
perception or sensing. When we move into applying words and labels to objects, we are dealing
with the first stage of order or the Descriptive stage, as Korzybski calls it. The description of
objects is based on direct experience. For example, I could see that the object I am looking at is a
cat, while another person could see it as a cow. Who is right? The answer is we both are. Since
words are constructed and interpreted differently, what I view as a cat, he may have it in his
mind as a cow. Although the standard alphabet has tried to alleviate these types of issues by
getting everyone on the same page, it still leaves room for different ideas of how objects are
interpreted, perceived and abstracted. The final stage, or Inference, deals with the assumptions
we accept. This is without direct knowledge or experience with what is being referred to. Most of
knowledge and learning is based on inference. I claim to know a vast collection of US history,
yet I was not there to experience most of the history. A majority of what I know of US history is
just accepted assumptions of what happened based on what other people had experienced.
I go to college to maximize my ability of critical thinking. The final step is the awareness
that we abstract. Korzybski also taught us that a response not only alters others’ interpretation
and response, but a response depends on an individual’s construction of reality, and not reality
itself, because we perceive the world according to labels. I agree with Korzybski’s sentiment
because we have an insatiable need to label and to put the world in order and context. It is just
like Burke said how humans are driven by a sense of order. Korzybski highlighted what I will
point out later in the handbook: how perception is limited and the importance of adjusting or
modifying your schemata.
Korzybski concepts to know
 Indexing: continually update your data. This can be done by realizing what’s going on
(WIGO) and adjusting.
 Dating: reevaluating due to changes over time
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 Chain-Indexing: reevaluate a person over time based on context. In communication and
in relationships context is an important factor to understanding the other person. A joke
taken out of context may be taken as an insult, but given the proper context you realize
that it was a funny joke. This could affect your perception of someone, so chain-indexing
is crucial.
 Causation vs. Functional Formula: to think in terms direct causality over-simplifies
reality
S.I. Hyakawa’s Abstraction Ladder
Hyakawa was a student of Korzybski. He took Korzybski’s concept of how we get
further and further away from reality while we are abstracting and visualized it. He came up with
the abstraction ladder, which views the object as an individual at the beginning, but slowly gets
more abstract as you ascend the ladder until the object is viewed as merely wealth.
Abstraction is a tough concept to grasp for sure, but it is all about how you see and create
language and your reality. You can abstract your reality and make it whatever you want it to be
and no one will be there criticize it.
For more information on abstraction, please refer to:
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/communication/comms_theory/level_abstraction.htm
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/abstraction
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Memory, Attitude and Perception
Memory, attitude, and perception all feed into one another. They are cumulative like most
concepts in this course. An example is your memory of associations. You tend to remember how
you associate your attitudes of that. In classic literature, the heroes are associated with the color
white, and the villains are associated with the color black. We will talk more about associations
in a little bit, but right now we are going to talk about memory.
Memory
It sure is nice having a photographic memory. Being able to recall minute details from a
situation that happened a while ago can be really beneficial. If you are able to remember what
someone said days prior, it puts you in a good position to win an argument. I always have studied
for tests the night before, because I have never really had the need to study for it early since I
could retain all the information that was being covered on test. My photographic memory is an
example of long-term memory. Long term memory is retained ideas, thoughts, and symbols.
Two examples of long-term memory are explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory is also
known as declarative memory and can be recalled consciously, while implicit memories are
subconscious habits of perception, motor skills, and language structures. On the other side of the
spectrum, we have short-term memory. This is memorization of rather small, simple tasks or
lists. It is only meant to last from a few minutes to a couple of hours. This is used when you do
not have time to write down items, like when you go shopping and you are in a rush. Memory in
our society is very important. After all, history is just memories of the past. "Those who cannot
remember the past are condemned to repeat it." - George Santayana.
Everything in this world happens in cycles, whether it is communication, social systems,
history, or even memory. If you do not keep indexing your data and updating your schemata, you
are going to make the same mistakes over and over again.
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Attitude
As I stated earlier, memory, attitude and perception are closely linked. An attitude is a cluster
of associations, favorable and unfavorable, for any given object. An attitude is a learned
predisposition that is tied in with our beliefs and emotion, and is subject to change. Attitudes are
consistent. For example, in Nazi Germany, the Germans’ visceral hatred of Jewish people was a
learned and consistent behavior brought down from their leader Adolf Hitler. A personal
example of a negative attitude would be when someone insults my best friend. I start to have bad
associations of the person and view them as a mean person. This is tied in with my beliefs
because when they said something contrary to my beliefs of my best friend, I get angry with
them. It also messes with my emotions because my best friend and I have a close relationship
and, when you are insulting him, it is insulting me because I am close friends with the guy they
are insulting.
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Perception
Life is what we make of it, and our perception of reality relates to what is going on in our
lives. We are only perceptive with a few things. People tend to be very selective in their
perception of things, only attend to and confirm what we already believe to be true and discard
information that tells us otherwise. In Ulrich Neisser’s Perceptual Cycle (pictured below) our
interpretation of an object is run through our schemata (or thought structures) and changes are
only made if we deem it necessary upon further investigation
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People all interpret and perceive objects differently. This is why in organizations,
miscommunication is the norm, because even though you may say the message five times, other
people may interpret and perceive your message different than you intended.
We perceive by importance and novelty. During breast cancer awareness month, it is not
hard to perceive what is going on, because it is important and is the most common cancer of
women. People also attend to it better because the color pink stands out, and we attend to color.
We tend to view objects in Figure-Ground Relationships, grouping or common fate, or even as
part of closure (seeing objects in a holistic view).
I have had the pleasure of being a part of some unique social systems, in which I have
been exposed to subcultures. My best friend is a part of the furry fandom. He would often get
ridiculed because people have a negative perception of furries. A furry is a person who is
interested in anthropomorphic creatures with human personalities and characteristics. The
common perception by the public is that most of the fandom is abnormal because they like to
partake in sexual relations, while wearing fursuits (Note: Not all furries have fursuits). However,
that group of fandom is in the minority, but he still catches flak for it, even though he is not part
of the minority.
Once we have perceived something to be a certain way, it is really difficult to change our
schemata because we are very selective when we perceive objects. However, if people are
presented conflicting information to our schemata that proves to be true, they will update their
schemata. This is important to do because people can perceive objects, thoughts, and ideas to
create more developed meanings of the world around us.
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Meaning
We as human beings have a desire to make meaning. Through meaning, we find a
purpose for ideas, thoughts and actions, which make up each individual. By assigning meaning
to objects and abstractions, we hope to be able to better understand or make sense of the
mysterious world around us.
Types of meaning
 Semantic- meaning in the interrelationship of words, phrases, sentences
 Semiotic – study of signs and their meaning
 Pragmatic- study of how context affects meaning
o Linguistic context: company words keep
o Situational context: place, time, action
So, what is meaning anyway?
The meaning of something is up to the individual. Everybody might assign a different
meaning to the same object, because every individual is unique based on how they interpret the
message differently than others, the social systems they belong to, their personal drama or what’s
really going on in their life, the associations their brain and mind make, and their habits of
perception. People who have different social systems, for example, will make the other four
unique characteristics. Meaning, however, is not as cut and dry as you may think. According to
the Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM), meaning is created within several layers of
your interaction patterns.





Speech Act: words we use
Self: sense of who you are, identity
Episode: what we do together
Relationship: recurring interactions, bond
Cultural Patterns: defined and dynamic
Even so, meaning is a mystery to us. It is beyond our words and understanding.
Depending on the situation, who I am with and the relationship I share with them, I will
create different meanings. For example, the difference in meaning of the phrase, “This is a
good paper!” carries a much different pragmatic meaning with my former Writing Center
colleagues than with my best friend. With my former Writing Center colleagues was a
professional relationship, which meant what I said could be taken at face value, however,
with my best friend, we share a dry and sarcastic sense of humor, which means what I say to
him may actually have the opposite meaning than the normal meaning. What I may say is a
good paper in his presence may not actually be a good paper. Meaning is coordinated and
managed, negotiated.
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What gives my life meaning?
In my opinion, meaning is not derived from an individual’s accomplishments, rather it’s
derived from your social interactions and relationships with others, and the impact you have on
their lives. If you are able to significantly impact the life of another, even just a little bit, it can be
substantial and give your life substance and meaning. After all, you can’t change the world; you
can change the people in it one by one. In the end, I think what gives a person meaning in their
life is their impact on the world around them, not the world.
Burke’s Cluster Analysis
Burke finds meaning in identifications. What you choose to identify something with as
opposed to something else gives it a different meaning.
 What equals what?
 What versus what?
 From what, through what, to what?
John Searle’s Speech Acts
As stated on the previous page, a speech act is the words we use. The words we use and what
context we give them in gives them a different meaning.
 Commissives: commit speaker to future course of action
 Expressives: express speaker’s attitudes, emotions
 Declaratives: speech acts that change reality
 Assertives: commit speaker to truth
 Directives: cause action for hearer
This is important because we use these different speech acts in our everyday life. For
example, without the proper directive from the general manager I could not do my job right at
ETV as production assistant. Without the proper understanding of the meaning of the speech act,
I could not do my job properly.
Watzlawick’s 5 Axioms
Paul Watzlawick holds these five abatements to be true about communication (These
statements I also find to be true, as these truths pop up in my daily conversations.)
 You cannot not communicate
 Communication is digital and analog
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 Communication has content, relationship
 Relationships depend on “punctuation” of sequences
 All communication is either symmetrical or complementary
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Personality
Personality really gets at a core question that we all must ask ourselves: who are you?
When I ask myself, what pops into my head are these lyrics from the song “Who Are You” by
The Who:
Well, who are you? (Who are you? Who, who, who, who?)
I really wanna know (Who are you? Who, who, who, who?)
Tell me, who are you? (Who are you? Who, who, who, who?)
'Cause I really wanna know (Who are you? Who, who, who, who?)
Personality is rather hard to gauge on your own because it is based on context, the
interactions with others and the individual. Yes, you play a role in creating your own personality
because after all, it is how others see us, so it is a reflection of the self.
Type A vs. Type B
Every personality can either fit in Friedman’s Type A or B personalities. People with a
Type A personality tend to be competitive, aggressive, impatient, and insecure about their status,
while people with a Type B personality tend to be patient, easy-going, and flexible.
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A majority of the time, I see myself more as a Type A personality. Growing up in a big
household with three older brothers, a younger brother, and a sister, you often had to fight for
what you could get. Naturally, when we start playing a board game together, things start to get
really heated. We all get extremely competitive and impatient with others for not taking their
turn fast enough. Although a majority of the time, I see myself as having a Type A personality, I
have more of a Type B when I am in conversations. I tend to be more of people person and easy
going when I am in conversation.
The Big Five
I think Goldberg’s “Big Five” personality traits are quite valuable. Goldberg gives people
wiggle room on both sides of the spectrum, giving an individual essentially 10 options, because
if the two types of personality were any example, people are not confined to one overarching
personality type or trait. Everybody’s personality is unique and different.
I would consider myself a moderately extroverted person because often times when I am
in class, I am quiet and reserved, but when I get done with class, I am a person who can talk up a
storm and be really easy-going.
Myers-Briggs Personality test
The Myers-Briggs personality test is a good test to gauge the various aspects of
personality. Even though the results may be biased due to it being a self-report test, I still think it
is a good barometer of what your personality is. I took a free Jung personality test, which is
closely related to the Meyers-Briggs, online. The test found me to have an ESFP personality
type. The website described my personality type to be an "Entertainer. Radiates attractive
warmth and optimism. Smooth, witty, charming, clever. Fun to be with. Very generous.” 4 I find
this assessment of my personality type to be fairly accurate. My perception of my personality
type may differ from other people’s perception of my personality type.
Harry Stack Sullivan
I often see my personality from Harry Stack Sullivan’s point of view. He sees personality
relating to your relational network. He based this point of view off of Martin Buber’s “I-Thou”
or “I-You” interlocking behaviors where our actions are meant to get a response. These actionreaction patterns have become habitual.
I am always looking to make somebody laugh. Whenever I make a joke, I expect a
reaction from the other person. Moreover, any action I make is meant to elicit some type of
response. I think it is just human nature to be that way. After all, humans are social beings.
4 "Jung Personality Test." Similarminds.com. SimilarMinds, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.
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Gustav Ichheiser
Gustav Ichheiser’s view of personality had people’s appearances and realities. He broke
personality qualities into three categories: real (naturally inhabited), pseudo (based on situation),
and sham (not being there). The real quality relates to someone who is extraordinarily gifted in
an area such as a chess phenom. While I do not much understand chess myself, the game of
chess comes naturally to a phenom. He would defeat opponents with ease.
The pseudo quality is valuable to our society because people are often concerned with
money and their social status. The pseudo is clearly displayed in the movie Jerry Maguire when
Rod Tidwell tells his agent Jerry Maguire to “show me the money!” Tidwell was only concerned
about how much money he was making, while disregarding everything else.
Shams are everywhere in our society. They are especially prevalent on the Internet. When
people set up an online dating profile, they make themselves seem more attractive because they
think other people will perceive them better thinking they are more attractive than they actually
are in reality. They spend so much time manipulating their perception on the Internet without
spending time on what really matters themselves. How they are as an individual should be the
most important factor in a relationship, not the perception of them on the Internet.
Personality comes out in our reactions, interactions, and how we deal with our own
situation. You can be whatever you want to be. Just worry about what seems right to you and let
your personality be a reflection of all you can be.
For more information on personality, please refer to:
http://psychology.about.com/od/overviewofpersonality/a/persondef.htm
http://similarminds.com/jung.html
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Motivation
While I was sitting in my group interview for the Residence Assistant position, I was
asked what motivates me. As I was pondering my answer, I could not stop thinking about the
money I would get from the job. Being a guy who has had no jobs in his life due to physical
limitations, the money sounded really enticing. Sure, I would love to say I am good selfmotivation, but I always get defeated by the monster that is procrastination. At the end of the
day, money, for most of the world, is the ultimate motivator because money gives us power.
Aside from the money, we also are motivated to satisfy basic needs or desires. Abraham
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a classic example of this because we get so caught up in fulfilling
our basic psychological needs that we get stuck in a rut and that’s all we do. His hierarchy of
needs shows us how we have the need to feel safe.
Though we are driven to fill these needs, that does not mean we can do it by ourselves; we
need a group of people to motivate us to be the best possible we can be. Motivation is the driving
force behind your life. With it you can do anything, however, without, you become a mindless
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zombie without a purpose. That is why you need William Glasser’s Choice theory to stay
motivated. We may not choose how our life’s events unfold, but we do have the choice of how to
react to it. It is really challenging to react in a calm way if the world is coming down on you.
Glasser said we are motivated by the choice of:
 Fun
 Freedom
 Power
 Belonging
 Survival
All life choices can be basically broken down into these four categories. These are the
motives that drive me and what I do and why I do what I do. Even though people may not always
understand the motives for my actions, I know that I am choosing the right way to express
myself through those motives because I enjoy life that way. That’s how I choose to react to the
situations in life. I may be perceived as crazy, but I make life interesting.
I try to live my life through the viewpoint of Shakti Gawain and her process of concentration
of being, doing, and having. She believes you have to take care of yourself and better yourself as
a person, then work on their jobs and activities, and finally focus on their possessions. At the end
of the day, you are only living your life, not someone else. While it is easy to try to satisfy and
fulfill the needs of others, you cannot be neglecting yourself, and you need to figure out who you
are.
Motivation is complex and contradictory as pointed out by Henry A. Murray. While we may
have needs for things like power and dominance, we also have the need to be submissive because
we want to feel both sides of the spectrum. We expect that and we desire it.
Motivation is critical in our lives. It defines who we are and who we want to be. It not only
plays a significant role with the individuals, but others around them and vice versa. Recently, I
have been able to overcome physical limitations and be more self-sufficient because the people
around me motivated me to do it simply by my observation of them overcoming physical
limitations as well. This proves that motivation is all around us; we just need to harness it to
make our lives better.
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Persuasion
Advertisements are everywhere, with their sole purpose to try to persuade us to buy a
certain product or to think a certain way. Everything from the Sham Wow to political campaign
advertisements is trying to persuade us. With the gluttony of advertisements, they have easily
made their way into our culture, but with advisements being everywhere, how do companies get
their targeted audience to attend to their product? They use the Monroe motivated sequence
(Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, Action), Visibility, Identity, Promise, Simplicity
(VIPS) and Features, Advantages, Benefits (FAB) of a product to make it stand out.
Even though you might be aware most of these advertisements are meant to persuade, you cannot
help but get sucked in. I was always enamored with the products promoted by pitchman, the late
Billy Mays.
Sometimes, there may not even be a need for the product, but the salesperson creates a
need for it. Billy Mays was great at doing just that. Whenever one of his products came on TV,
and I heard him projecting, “Hi, Billy Mays here”, I was automatically interested. One of the
reasons why these ads are so effective is that they all use rhetoric.
Blast to the past
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Corax of Syracuse started teaching rhetoric on the island
of Sicily in 465 BC because you had to fight for yourself in court. All persuasion can be boiled
down to introduction, argument of proof, and conclusion. Corax said that all arguments deal with
probabilities. Tisias, who was a student of Corax, brought sophists, or teachers of wisdom, to the
Greek mainland. This started an ongoing battle with the Academy that was already there because
it bred competition. With persuasion, we are led to believe a plethora of truths, but it depends on
who is telling the statement, so they can interpret it to be the truth. Therefore, the meaning of
truth is relative depending on who is relaying the message. This is what Protagoras meant when
he said, “Man is the measure of all things.” However, not everyone was a fan of the teachings of
rhetoric. Plato likened it to cookery, not art. Before Aristotle, rhetoric was not organized; he was
the first to use what was available for persuasion, such as ways of framing arguments or topoi
and elements of persuasion or canons such as: invention, style, arrangement, and delivery.
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Fall of the Roman Empire
When the Roman Empire saw its downfall in 476 AD, so too did rhetoric. During the
Medieval time period, rhetoric gave way to liberal arts. When the world experienced a rebirth, so
too did rhetoric with the Renaissance. During this time, rhetoric became a part of logic.
Burke and rhetoric
Burke defines rhetoric as “the use of words by human agents to form attitudes or induce
actions in other human agents.” Burke emphasized identification as a way to persuade people. It
is all about building a rapport with your audience by relating something they are familiar with to
whatever you are persuading them on. Identifying with your audience makes them feel like you
are just like them by associating things that are relevant to them.
Postmodern movement of persuasion
The postmodern movement is meant to show how the power elites are controlling
everything and how we’re getting exposed to a lot of same messages. Persuasion is more
effective with repetition. Even though it is an uphill battle, the Postmodern will continue to
combat the mainstream commercials with their own commercials and writings. We can hope
they never give up the fight.
For more information on Persuasion, please refer to:
http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/persuasion
http://readingrhetoric.wordpress.com/2012/03/03/persuasion-and-the-concept-of-identification/
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Mass media and the Mind
In this so called Information Age coined by Marshall McLuhan, we are affected by mass
media more than ever before. Whether it is how we view the world as dangerous if we watch too
much TV (Gerbner’s cultivation theory), or how the public has a tendency to be stirred up into
mass hysteria like they were with Orson Welles’ radio broadcast of War of the Worlds
(Hyperemic needle theory), mass media influences our lives in many ways. According to the
agenda-setting theory, the media don’t determine what you think so much as what you think
about. Not only can we as a society be greatly influenced by the media, but by our technology as
well.
In the Information Age as opposed to the Agricultural or Industrial Age, we have this
necessity to be close to our technology. We are so inundated with hot media (media that is
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focused on single sense) that we cannot imagine life without our gadgets. Neil Postman was
right when he used the term “technopoly” to describe our society. “Culture seeks its
authorization in technology, finds its satisfaction in technology, and takes its orders from
technology.”
I would find myself lost without some of the modern technology we have. I love always
having access to information and communication. When I am home on summer break, I like to
call my out-of-state friends and stay connected with them. Technology helps me do my work
because I cannot physically write, but it is driving our society into the ground. It is taking away
the need for physical human interaction and replacing it with a computer screen. Our society is
dependent on technology that we get so caught up in our own electronic virtual world that we
lose sight of the physical world around us. A clear example of this would be when people are
texting and they accidently run into me because they are not aware of their physical
surroundings.
Postmodern Movement
The Postmodern Movement is also trying to be a solution to our technological dependence
problem. The power elites control the media, which is essentially in our culture controlling
the world. They want to show people the adverse effects of the Information Age. Their
ultimate goal is for us to realize the error of our ways and unplug ourselves.
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Communication Apprehension
We communicate with each other every day so, why then do we experience communication
apprehension? We communicate to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings, but we become nervous
about what we are communicating. It is associated with fear, shyness, and avoidance.
Communication apprehension can be defined as “…individual level of fear or anxiety associated
with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons.” - McCroskey,
1977. Communication is such a vital part of life, which means communication apprehension
would have serious implications such as:
 Affects self esteem
 Choosing non-social career/major
 Physiological effects
 Socially perceived as less desirable
 Feelings of inhibition, inadequacies
Communication apprehension can caused by a personal personality trait, a certain context
of a conversation, the fear could be audience-based (fear based on a certain person or group
of people), or a certain situation.
A fate worse than death
For a lot of people this is a reality when they have to deliver a speech or address in
public. On the surface, the notion that public speaking is worse than death is a bit absurd, but
people are so terrified that for some this is reality. I had to take public speaking during my
freshman year. I dreaded giving every speech. It was worse than getting a root canal. I was
worried that the class would find my speech terrified. To complicate things, I have cerebral
palsy, which means I struggle with the clarity of my speech. As a result, people have trouble
understanding what I say (for that reason I hate talking on the telephone.)
Causes of Communication Apprehension
 Heredity
 Inadequate Skill Development
 Absence of Adequate Role Models
 Social Anxiety
 Social Conditioning
 Embarrassment
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What can be done?
Like everything else, it starts with building strong communication skills and getting
students involved in oral communication activities. You can try strategies such as exercises that
relax your musucles, visualization (imagining yourself doing it), additional individual instruction
from the teaching, tempering your expectations, and peer tutoring.
I find additional teacher instruction and visualization to be the best communication
apprehension. For years, I would work with speech therapists once a week to try to improve the
overall clarity and consistency. Even though the speech therapy was grueling at times, it helped
me with public speaking and my overall speech patterns. I would use visualization any time I
would have to give a speech in public because is able to picture what success is like makes the
speech easier to deliver because you are only thing of doing well.
There are also instruments for measuring communication apprehension such as:
1. Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24)
2. McCroskey Shyness Scale
3. Self-Perceived Communication Competence Scale
I find these helpful because they help me realize what areas I can improve, so I can strive to do
better.
Changing communication apprehension
 You can change communication apprehension with these:
Motivation
 Practice
 Visualization
 Alter Perceptions
 Relaxation
 Social Support
Practice makes perfect. The more you practice it the more you are motivated about it because
you are familiar you are with the material. The more motivation and social support I have in a
situation, the more confident I can do it. When you put your mind to it and are highly motivated
about it there’s nothing you can’t do.
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For more information on communication apprehension, please refer to:
http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/quiet.htm
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Communication competence
With communication you are always trying to get your message across. The message
often has “goals” or items you are trying to get across and make the listener understand during
the conversation. It depends on the effectiveness of this during appropriate interactions. Goals
may be self-presentation (how perceived), relational, or instrumental.
What is appropriate anyway?
We all have our own ideas what we deem to be appropriate during conversations. These
ideas are usually run by run, which are formulated prescriptions that are the guidelines of what
should and should not be done be done in context. These rules are either explicit (written or
spoken) or implicit (unspoken). Norms on the other hand, are learned patterns of behaviors that
self-regulate conservations. Norms are not spoken they are implied. Appropriate conversations
do not break rules or norms.
Factors of Competence
 Motivation – The purpose of most professional speakers is to motivate people. By
motivating people, you are encouraging them to do something with your message. You
can either give your listeners positive motivation, which is more approachable or
negative motivation, which makes your listeners more likely to avoid your message.
 Knowledge
o Content – topics, words, meanings. You can impart this on subjects you are well
versed. For me, some of these subjects would be sports and cartoons. You have a
wealth of information on these subjects.
o Procedural – how to communicate. People with this type of knowledge can
explain how to accomplish a task to another person. For example, I often explain
to my grandmother how to do some tasks on the iPad 2.
o Skills - repeatable goal-directed behaviors. These can be verbal and nonverbal and
general like listening, asking questions, and storytelling.
Context
Context is the frame from which conversation occurs. This applies to most communication
we have. Context alters meaning of your words depending on which group of people you are
communicating with.
1. Culture - A unique combination of rituals, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and ways of
behaving that unify a group of people.5 People from the same culture share a similar
ethnicity and nationality. Culture alters the meaning of some gestures. Some gestures
may be okay in some cultures being able to be offensive in other cultures.
5 "Quizlet." Human Communication Chp 7 Flashcards. Quizlet, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.
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2. Time- Time is relative. We all experience and use time differently
3. Relationship- The relationship you have with someone or a group can alter the context of
a conversation. If you know someone rather well, you will talk to them differently than a
stranger. An example of this type of context can be found in the Meaning section.
4. Place- the environment or the familiarity level of a place
Communication can be more or less appropriate and effective depending on the
context. What may be appropriate in certain conservations are not as appropriate in
others. Swearing for example may be okay amongst my friends, but when I accidently let
it slip in an interview, it was not appropriate in the context of the interview and it did not
reflect well on me.
Figure 1. A model of computer-mediated communication competence
For more information on communication competency, please refer to:
http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/commcomp.htm
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Assertiveness
I have always been told you need to be assertive in life if you want to get what you want.
Despite my perceived assertive nature by the outside world, I have often struggled to be
assertive. Being assertive for me is paramount because I was born with cerebral palsy, a group of
disorders that can involve brain and nervous system functions, such as movement, learning,
hearing, seeing, and thinking. Since I am disabled, things will not be handed to me on a silver
platter. I am going to actually be assertive if I expected to get the advocacy and personal care I
will need in life. Being assertive allows you to fully express yourself without fear of others
running your life. Being assertive allows you to able to:
 Good Human Relations
 Ability to Ask for What You Want
 Ability to Say NO and Disagree
 Initiate and Terminate Conversations
 Psycho-physiological coping skills
 Reduce Aggression
 Optimize Negotiations
Saying you are going to be more assertive and actually doing it are two different things.
Being assertive is very difficult to transition to. Here are some tips to make the change easier:
 Increase your capacity for psychological discomfort
 Don’t fear power structures
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 Realize rejection is normal
 Raise your tolerance for conflict
 Give people a “yesable” proposition
We do not live in an ideal world, so we beginning to worry about everything. Both things we
can and cannot control. Thoughts slowly creep into your mind. I have always had trouble with
these irrational beliefs to the point where I would become deeply depressed. According to Albert
Ellis these beliefs include the following:
1. I must be loved and approved by everyone
2. I must always prove myself competent
3. If someone harms me, or commits a misdeed against me, s/he must be punished
4. If things don’t go my way it is catastrophic
5. Emotional misery is external, caused by someone else, and I am not in control
6. It is easier to avoid life’s difficulties than to face them
7. The past is important and will continue to influence my life
8. My worth is judged by the degree to which people approve of me
9. I must suffer and feel guilty for the mistakes I have made.
Survival Strategies
 Attitude of Becoming
 Do It Now – This is critical. Opportunities will arise for you to be assertive and you
cannot let them fall by the wayside like we do with a lot of things. If it requires your
action, it is best to do it now and not procrastinate.
 Cultivate Awareness
 Immediacy – Be Here Now
 Method of Mutual Perceptions
 Act and the Courage will follow!
It has not been easy, but I have to be able to become more assertive. I did this by just living
my life by my terms and no one else’s, taking my time to enjoy life, not trying to do everything
all at once, and complicating my schedule by becoming less involved on campus. I know every
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student should try to become actively involved in campus life, but some of my activities were
stressing me out to the point where I could not enjoy college life, instead, I was a slave to it. That
is why I quit The Spectator in October 2012, which gave me much more free time for me to learn
how to be comfortable with myself. Now, I began to stop caring as much what other people
thought because in the end I cannot make their problems my problems, and I am okay with this.
For more information on assertiveness, please refer to:
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/assertive/SR00042
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
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Your social reality
Phycology of communication encompasses a variety of information. In order for an
individual to process and put all the information in context, they have to understand the course
concepts such mind, meaning, perception, and persuasion, they have to view it in relation to
other people and concepts. In other words, all of the concepts are cohesive and build off of each
other. We create our own realities through our various social systems and various individual
dramas. Everyone presents their own sets of stories within the greater spectrum of Drama called
“metanarrative”. With our cluster of interactions, our mind creates symbols; it is also made up of
social and psychological interactions. Memory, attitudes and perception are the connecting point
or MAPs that opens the individual to the wider spectrum. We all negotiate and manage meaning
that is inside all of us. Much like motivation, and communication, meaning starts with our
interactions. Meaning and motivation go hand and hand and are developed through our language.
Persuasion is all around us and taking more advantage of it to be part of the collective whole.
What have I learned?
This class has allowed me to look inside myself and find the true me. I have been able
provide a deep self-analysis about my life experiences and decisions. Everything in life can be
rooted back to language and communication cycles. Without communication, none of the
concepts are possible. Communication is the basis of our social systems, which allows for
interaction. Interaction is critical. Before this class, I never viewed interaction as vitally
important. My life has taken some interesting twists and turns, but I have dealt with all the class
concepts on a daily basis. Even though this class stresses to view the concepts and the individual
each from a relational point of view, the concepts really force you to delve deep inside yourself
at an individual level to understand them. I would have never would have thought just how much
of a significant impact we as individuals have on the gambit of concepts in this class. It has made
me realize just how powerful the self is in creating our realities, the power of the mind meaning,
and motivation when it comes to our own lives. Up to this point in my life, it has been a
whirlwind and I am just along for the ride. Changing our realities and the world around us with
all that would capable of perceiving and change to make this world a better place for all until it is
time to get off.
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