1
Introduction
World War I (1914-1918) was a turning point in world history. No previous conflict could match its scale of
destruction. Millions of people died, often in battles that seemed to have no winners or losers- only dead and
wounded. World War I was the first conflict to use modern technology on a wide scale. Armies and navies
communicated with radio and telegraph, while cars and trucks linked up with trains to move troops around.
Modern industrial methods produced big guns that could send shells more than 9 miles (fifteen kilometers).
Submarines, airplanes, airships, and tanks also made their first appearance in combat during the war. Hand
grenades and barbed wire- all used for the first time as weapons during World War I- added to these deadly
developments.
The most striking image of World War I is that of the trenches. On the great battlefields, huge armies lay in
waiting, unable to advance against each other. Soldiers on each side dug long trenches. There, in the damp,
muddy soil, they were forced to live with the constant noise of gunfire.
Power Struggle
At the time, World War I was known simply as the Great War. It was a struggle between Europe’s great powers,
grouped into two opposing alliances. On one sided were the Central Powers, led by Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria, and Turkey (which was known at the time as the Ottoman Empire). Facing them in the war were the
Allied Powers, led by Great Britain and its empire, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, and the United States, Overall,
more than 65 million soldiers fought in the war.
The alliances that developed in the decades before the war created a complicated web of promises and pledges
between countries. When the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was killed by a Serbian nationalist in June
1914, the network of alliances forced European leaders into conflict. There seemed to be no stopping a war.
Within five weeks, the European continent had been plunged into a nightmarish conflict that would last more
than four years.
The long haul
At first, both sides believed that the fighting would be over by Christmas, but World War I settles into a long,
deadly conflict. Millions of men died in its most famous battles, such as the Marne, Ypres, the Somme, and
Verdun, yet these battles produced very few obvious gains. In the end, the war turned into a contest of strength
and staying power. When the United States entered the war in 1917- its first involvement in a European conflictthe Allied Powers gained the upper hand. The war began to turn in their favor, and a little more than a year
later, the Central Powers were forced to surrender.
When the fighting was finally over, no one could be certain how many people had been killed, but historians
estimate that up to 10 million men lost their lives on the battlefield and another 20 million were wounded. After
it ended, world leaders tried to describe World War I as “the war to end all wars.” Little did they know that
another conflict would claim even more lives a little more than two decades later.
Alliances and Crises
From the late 19th century and into the 20th, Europe became tense and watchful. A growing sense of nationalism
led each country to try and gain further power- often at the expense of other nations. European countries
competed for colonies, especially in places that were rich in raw materials that were so important for industry.
There was an atmosphere of mistrust, and many European nations began spending a lot of money to build up
their armies and navies.
Because of this sense of mistrust and the ongoing military expansion, nations looked for alliances with other
powers. They usually argued that the alliances were a way of defending themselves, but these European nations
2
were actually sowing the seeds for war with a series of promises to fight. Gradually, these alliances drew in
more and more countries until there were two hostile military alliances: the Triple Alliance (Germany, AustriaHungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia). Shifts within these alli8anceswhen countries changed sides if they sensed new dangers close to home- added to the growing sense of crisis.
Primary Source: An alliance is made. Many of the agreements made between European governments were
secret, although they locked the countries involved into complicated promises. This is an excerpt from the
Franco-Russian Alliance Military Convention. It was signed on August 18, 1892, but was not made public until
1918.
“France and Russia, being moved by a common desire to preserve peace, have agreed upon the following
provisions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If France is attacked by Germany, or by Italy supported by Germany, Russia shall employ all her
available forces to attack Germany. If Russia is attacked by Germany, or by Austria supported by
Germany, France shall employ all of her available forces to attack Germany.
In Case the forces of the Triple Alliance, or of any one of the Powers belonging to it, should be mobilized,
France and Russia shall mobilize immediately and simultaneously [at the same time] the whole of their
forces , and shall transport them as far as possible to their frontiers.
The available forces to be employed against Germany shall be, on the part of France, 1,300,000 men, on
the part of Russia, 700,000 or 800,000 men, These forces shall engage to the full with such speed that
Germany will have to fight simultaneously on the East and on the West.
The general staffs of the armies of the two countries shall cooperate with each other at all times to
carry out the measures mentioned above
France and Russia shall not conclude peace [sign a treaty] separately.
The present convention shall have the same duration [length] as the Triple Alliance.”
On October 8, 1908, just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, many
men, some of them ranking Serbian ministers, officials and generals, held a meeting at City
Hall in Belgrade. They founded a semi-secret society -- Narodna Odbrana (National Defense)
which gave Pan-Slavism a focus and an organization. The purpose of the group was to
recruit and train partisans for a possible war between Serbia and Austria. They also
undertook anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within
the empire's provinces. Satellite groups were formed in Slovinia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and
Istria. The Bosnian group went under the name Mlada Bosna -- Young Bosnia.
Narodna Odbrana's work had been so effective that in 1909 a furious Austria pressured the Serbian government
to put a stop to their anti-Austrian insurrection. Russia was not ready to stand fully behind Serbia should things
come to a showdown, so Belgrade was grudgingly forced to comply. From then on, Narodna Odbrana
concentrated on education and propaganda within Serbia, trying to fashion itself as a cultural organization.
The Birth of the Black Hand
Many members formed a new, and again secret, organization to continue the terrorist actions. Ten men met on
May 9, 1911 to form Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Union or Death), also known as The Black Hand. The seal of their group
is reproduced above. By 1914, there were several hundred members, perhaps as many as 2500. Many members
were Serbian army officers. The professed goal of the group was the creation of a Greater Serbia, by use of
violence, if necessary. The Black Hand trained guerillas and saboteurs and arranged political murders. The Black
Hand was organized at the grassroots level in 3 to 5-member cells. Above them were district committees. Above
them, was the Central committee in Belgrade. At the top was the ten-member Executive Committee led, more
or less, by Colonial Dragutin Dimitrijevic, (also known as Apis ). Members rarely knew much more than the
members of their own cell and one superior above them, to ensure that the group's leaders would remain
secret. New members swore "...before God, on my honor and my life, that I will execute all missions and
3
commands without question. I swear before God, on my honor and on my life, that I will take all the secrets of
this organization into my grave with me."
The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions of Narodna Odbrana , and worked deliberately at obscuring any
distinctions between the two groups, trading on the prestige and network of the older organization. Black Hand
members held important army and government positions. Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic and
financial supporter. The group held influence over government appointment and policy. The Serbian
government was fairly well informed of Black Hand activities.
Friendly relations had fairly well cooled by 1914. The Black Hand was displeased with Prime Minister Nikola
Pasic. They thought he did not act aggressively enough towards the Pan-Serb cause. They engaged in a bitter
power struggle over several issues, such as who would control territories Serbia annexed in the Balkan Wars. By
this point, standing up and saying 'no' to the Black Hand was a dangerous act. Political murder was one of their
well known tools.
It was also in 1914 that Apis decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir-apparent of Austria, should be
assassinated. Towards that end, three young Bosnian-Serbs were recruited and trained in bomb throwing and
marksmanship. Princip, Cabrinovic' and Grabez were smuggled across the border back into Bosnia via a chain of
underground-railroad style contacts. The decision to kill the Archduke was apparently initiated by Apis, and not
sanctioned by the full Executive Committee. Those involved probably realized that their plot would invite war
between Austria and Serbia. They had every reason to expect that Russia would side with Serbia. In all
likelihood, they did not anticipate that their little war would mushroom into world war.
Others in the government and some on the Black Hand Executive Council were not as confident of Russian aid.
Russia had let them down recently. When word of the plot percolated through Black Hand leadership and the
Serbian government, Apis was told not to proceed. He made a half-hearted attempt to intercept the young
assassins at the border, but they had already crossed. This 'recall' appears to make Apis look like a loose cannon,
and the young assassins as independent zealots. In fact, the 'recall' took place a full two weeks before the
Archduke's visit. The assassins idled around in Sarajevo for a month. Nothing more was done to stop them. The
extensive network of contacts that smuggled them into Sarajevo, fed and housed them, was not utilized to stop
them. This calls into question the Black Hand's and the Serbian government's desire that the plot truly be
cancelled.
The Assassination
Of the seven young men involved, Princip succeeded in killing the Archduke. The careful secrecy of the Black
Hand delayed its being found out as the instigator of the crime until many weeks later. By that time, the guilt for
the crime had settled loosely on Serbia in general. Tensions between Serbia and Austria eventually drew in the
other European powers and escalated into world war. Towards the end of 1916, Prime Minister Pasic decided to
destroy the leaders of the Black Hand and break up the organization. By the spring of 1917, many Black Hand
leaders, including Apis, had been arrested. A sham trial before a military tribunal was held in May 1917 for Apis
and others. Among the charges was that the Black Hand had attempted to murder Prince Regent Alexander.
Though the number of witnesses against them were numerous, the evidence cited was nearly all hearsay or
outright fabrications. Apis and six others were sentenced to death. Three obtained commutations to long prison
terms, but Apis and three comrades were executed by firing squad on June 26, 1917.
In June 1917, the Black Hand was outlawed. Intriguing and insurrection, by their very nature, however, are not
bothered by legalities. A new organization -- The White Hand -- was formed from trustworthy men of Narodna
Odbrana . It continued the imperialistic work of the Black Hand, using the same techniques. The death of
Vojislav Petrovic, an ex-attache to the Yugoslav Legation in London, was said to be the work of Narodna
Odbrana . Petrovic was preparing a book on the history of the Sarajevo assassinations and the Black Hand.
In what became Yugoslavia after the war, the White Hand grew into an essential piece of the state's machinery.
4
Shots at Sarajevo:
Austria-Hungary, part of the Triple Alliance, controlled an empire that extended across much of central Europe.
Many of the smaller countries within the empire wanted to become independent, or to join neighboring,
independent countries. Serbia, which occupied an important position in the Balkan Mountains of eastern
Europe, was one of these independent countries. Many Serbs also lived in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was part
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serb nationalists formed a secret society, known as the Black Hand, to help the
Bosnian Serbs to join Serbia. They believed that Serbia would be strengthened, and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire weakened, if they could trigger a conflict in the region.
Austria-Hungary was eager to keep control of the Balkan region, because it feared that it’s great rival Russia
would gain influence there if Serbia became stronger. Tensions rose in Serbia, but the government of AustriaHungary remained firm. In late June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the thrones of Austria and
Hungary, visited the Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina for his wedding anniversary. Members of the
Black Hand knew of his trip and planned to kill him. Gavrilo Princip, a Serb nationalist, assassinated the
archduke and his wife on June 28, 1914.
Primary Source: Borijove Jevtic’s account of June 28, 1914---He was a member of the Black Hand and helped to
plan the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. His account is inaccurate in many ways. We have no
evidence, for example, that Archduchess Sofia was pregnant, but it gives a sense of the tense atmosphere of the
day.
“When Franz Ferdinand’s car passed Gabrinovic (a conspirator) threw his grenade. It hit the side of the car, but
Franz Ferdinand had the presence of mind to throw himself back, and he was uninjured. Several other officers
riding in his attendance were injured.
The cars sped to the town hall, and the rest of the conspirators did not interfere with them. After the reception
in the town hall, General Potiorek, the Austrian commander, pleaded with Franz Ferdinand to leave the city as it
was bubbling over with rebellion. The archduke was persuaded to drive the shortest way out of the city and to
go quickly.
The road was shaped like the letter V, making a sharp turn at the bridge over the Miljacka River. Franz
Ferdinand’s car could go fast enough until it reached this spot, but here it was forced to slow down for the turn.
Here, Princip (another conspirator) had taken his stand.
As the car came alongside him, he stepped forward from the curb, drew his automatic pistol from his coat, and
fired two shots. The first struck the wife of the archduke, Archduchess Sofia, in the abdomen. She was an
expectant mother. She died instantly.
The second bullet struck the archduke close to the heart. He uttered only one word, “Sofia”, a call to his stricken
wife. Then his head fell back and he collapsed. He died almost instantly.”
Europe at War:
Many people have described the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as the first shots of World War One.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and sent in troops. All through July of 1914, there were frantic attempts to
keep the conflict from spreading, but long-standing promises stood in the way. Russia promised to defend
Serbia against Austria-Hungary and Germany. Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and on
France on August 3.
German troops were sent west, through neutral Belgium, toward France. The invasion of Belgium led Great
Britain to declare war on Germany. Soon, other countries joined either the Central Powers (Germany, AustriaHungary, and their allies) or the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, and their allies). Actual fighting began on
three major European fronts: the western or Franco-Belgian front, the eastern or Russian front, and the
southern or Serbian front. With millions of troops pressed into service, Europe was about to see its biggest war
5
yet. No one could say how it would turn out, but for many people, the actual war came as a relief after years of
tense waiting. Now they could channel their energy into something productive, even if it meant risking their
lives. This was seen in all the recruiting posters that went up all over Britain persuading men to join the armed
forces.
Primary Source: Sergei N. Kurnakov describes the atmosphere in Russia. This newspaper report was in the
Russian capital of St. Petersburg, when he learned that war had been declared on August 1, 1914. Here he
describes the excitement of the Russian people and their anti-German mood.
“There was a crowd outside the newspaper office. Every few minutes a momentous phrase scribbled in charcoal
appeared in the window: ‘England gives up peace negotiations. Germany invades Belgium. Mobilization
progressing with great enthusiasm.’ And at 7:50PM: ‘Germany declares war on Russia.’
Then the edges of the crowd began breaking off and drifting in on direction, up the Nevsky Prospect (an avenue).
I heard the phrase ‘German Embassy’ repeated several times. I walked slowly that way.
The crowds were pressing around waiting for something to happen. I was watching a young Russian naval
officer being pawed by an over-patriotic group when the steady hammering of axes on metal made me look up a
the roof of the German Embassy, which was decorated with huge figures of overfed German warriors holding
bloated carthorses.
Several men were hammering at the feet of the Teutons. The very first strikes pitched the mob to a frenzy; the
heroic figures were hollow!”
Over by Christmas:
Great Britain had fought a war for control of South Africa at the turn of the 20 th century, so its troops had
experience fighting with more modern, powerful weapons; many soldiers were eager to put this experience to
use. They believed that the British, once they were in France, would sweep the Germans back. The press
echoes this patriotic view, urging young men to enlist in the armed forces.
Many British people believed the war would be over by Christmas 1914. Fired by these words, many young men
did enlist, increasing the numbers of British forces by hundreds of thousands. There was a mood of excitement
and confidence as the first British soldiers, part of the British Expeditionary Force, arrived in France on August
12, 1914. Some reporters wanted to reflect this confidence, no matter what they actually saw. Others believed
that it was important to report the truth as they saw it---that the war would be prolonged and would cost the
lives of millions of young soldiers. This approach landed some reporters in trouble with the military authorities.
Crowds gathered on Fleet Street, London, where most British newspapers had their offices. Everyone was eager
for news of the war, but the government was unsure about how much to tell the people.
Primary Source: Philip Gibbs’ Account---In the early months, the British War Office, under the control of Lord
Horatio Herbert Kitchener, tried to prevent journalists in France from sending reports back to England. British
reporter Philip Gibbs wrote the following report. He was arrested at Le Havre on his way back to the Western
Front.
“During the early months of the war in 1914 there was a conflict of opinion between the War Office and the
Foreign Office regarding news from the Front. They War Office wanted to black out all but the official
communiqués, and some innocuous articles by an official eye-witness, Ernest Swinton. A friend in the War Office
warned me that I was in Kitchener’s black books, and that orders had been given for my arrest next time I
appeared in France.
All was well until I reached the port of Le Havre. Three officers with the rank of lieutenant, whom afterwards I
knew to be Scotland Yard men, came abroad and demanded to see my documents, which they took away from
me. I was arrested and taken into the presence of General Bruce Williams in command of the base at Le Havre.
He put me under house arrest and forbade me all communication with Fleet Street or my family. Eventually I
6
succeeded in getting a letter to my boss explaining my plight. He took instant action and , by the influence of
Lord Tyrell at the Foreign Office, I was liberated and allowed to return to England.
The game was up, I thought. I had committed every crime against War Office orders. I should be barred as a
war correspondent. So I believed, but in the early part of 1915 I was appointed one of the five men accredited as
official war correspondents with the British Armies in the Field.”
1839-1914: The Long Fuse
Listed below are some of the events that occurred between the mid to late
19th century and the summer of 1914 that contributed to the War. This
period is referred to by many as "the long fuse". I have included some events
that are less of major historical significance and more for benefit of insight
(such as the incredible streak of bad luck for Emperor Franz Josef). American
events are included for a perspective on time.
1839
Britain, along with the other major European powers, signs a pact that guarantees the
sovereignty of Belgium.
1848
Austria-Hungary, under Franz Josef, loses war with France.
1860
Kingdom of Italy is founded.
1861
American Civil War begins.
1866
Austria-Hungary, under Franz Josef, loses war with Prussia.
1870
Franco-Prussian War
France, under the leadership of Emperor Napoleon III provoked war with Prussia. France
lost badly to Wilhelm I (Wilhelm II's grandfather). Among the losses were the provinces
of Alsace-Lorraine in western France which were annexed to Germany. Bismarck was
against this action fearing the French would never forgive it. Good call.
ø Moltke (the senior) summed it up well:
"What our sword has won in half a year our sword must guard for half a century"
7
18-Jan1871
Wilhelm I crowned Emperor of Germany at the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles
Jul1872
France passes the law of Universal Service (the draft).
1875
France establishes the "Ecole Superieure de Guerre", The War College.
7-Oct1879
The Dual Alliance is struck between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Not enthusiastic
about the alliance and feeling it may offend the Russia that had stood by Prussia,
Wilhelm I commented upon signing:
"Thinking of what it means I feel like a traitor."
18-Jun1881
The Three Emperor's League is formed.
20May1882
Italy joins Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Triple Alliance.
18-Jun1882
ø The Russian Reinsurance Treaty is signed.
9-Mar1888
Wilhelm I dies.A diplomatic cable from Berlin on the Kaiser's death:
"Lord abide with us for the evening draws nigh."
1888
Wilhelm II becomes Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany.
1889
Emperor Franz Josef's son Rudolph commits suicide (after killing his 16 year old mistress).
1890
Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck. Why? Prince Bernhard von Bulow writes:
"The authentic reason was that Wilhelm wanted to play Bismarck himself."
1890
Germany refuses to renew the ø Russian Reinsurance Treaty of 1887. New Chancellor
Georg Leo von Caprivi states:
"Bismarck was able to juggle with three balls but I can only juggle with two."
1891
Russia and France agree to consult if either are attacked.
18-
The Franco-Russian Alliance comes into being.
8
Aug1892
Jan1893
Russia and France agree to mobilize together if threatened by any member of the Triple
Alliance.
1896
The Dreyfus Affair reveals incompetence, corruption and worse in the French army.
1896
Italian army crushed by Ethiopia at the Battle of Adowa.
1897
Emperor Franz Josef's wife is assassinated.
1898
The Tirpitz Plan is started for the building of a major German fleet.
1898
The Spanish-American War begins.
1904
Britain becomes somewhat allied with the Franco-Russian combine with the entente
cordiale with France.
1904-5
Russo-Japanese War. The Russians lose badly in Manchuria and Korea.
1905
Revolution in Russia is put down.
Mar1905
The Morocco Crisis
1906
The Pig War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia begins.
1907
Anglo-Russian reconciliation.
1908
Austria-Hungary annexes the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bulgaria
proclaims independence from Turkey.
8-Oct1908
The Kaiser is involved in the Daily Telegraph Affair.
1910
Edward VII dies and George V is crowned King of Britain.
1911
Italy wins war with Turkey to gain Tripoli.
9
1911
Second Moroccan Crisis.
1912
Britain and France agree on paper only to consult each other if faced with an unprovoked
attack.
1912
Widespread strikes and disturbances in Russia.
8-Dec1912
Kaiser calls the "War Council".
1913
French pass bill extending military service to three years.
JunJul1913
Second Balkan War between Serbia and Bulgaria.
26May1914
The Home Rule Act is passed in Britain. Civil war with Ireland becomes a possibility.