 Meiosis: This is division of the germ cells
(i.e., the male or female reproductive cells)
 The result is that, for a male, the sperm (or egg) cells contain half the number of chromosomes (N=23) that normal cells in other parts of the body contain (N=46).
 Meiosis results in sperm (or egg) cells that are a more or less random collection of one each of the chromosomes from Mom and Dad;

Meiosis for a male: His germ cells start out with 23 pairs of chromosomes, one set from mom (m) and one set from dad (d), with crossover for half of germ cells.
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Mom Dad
1 m
2 m d d
3 m
4 m
5 m d d d
6 m
7 m
8 m
9 m
10 m
11 m
12 m
13 m
13 m
14 m d d d d d d d d d d
15 m
16 m
17 m
18 m
20 m
21 m
22 m
23 X Y d d d d d d d
Sperm#1
After Meiosis
Sperm#2 m d dc d mc m
Sperm #3 mc m c
Sperm #4 . . . dc dc mc
X Y Y X

Meiosis for a female: Her germ cells start out with 23 pairs of chromosomes, one set from mom (m) and one set from dad (d), with crossover for half of germ cells.
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Mom Dad
1 m
2 m d d
3 m
4 m
5 m d d d
6 m
7 m
8 m
9 m
10 m
11 m
12 m
13 m
13 m
14 m d d d d d d d d d d
15 m
16 m
17 m
18 m
20 m
21 m
22 m
23 X X d d d d d d d
Sperm#1
After Meiosis
Sperm#2 m d dc d mc m
Sperm #3 mc m c
Sperm #4 . . . dc dc mc
X X X X

 The figure includes crossover: half of the m and d chromosomes interchange genetic material with each other.
 These are indicated by mc and dc respectively.
 The female germ cell undergoes a similar process, so the actual number of possible genetic combinations between one man and one woman is staggeringly high.

 Mitosis: Normal cell division in non-germ cells.
 Mitosis replicates the previous cell unless there are errors.
 autosomes: The 22 paired non-sex chromosomes.

 If the alleles are homozygous, the two genes at the locus are the same.
 If the alleles are heterozygous, the two genes at the locus are different.

 Co-dominant: Both alleles at a locus are expressed with equal force; e.g., the ABO blood system: If you are AB, you express both alleles
 Dominant: Only one allele at a locus is expressed. The other (recessive gene) is suppressed.
 Recessive: An allele that is suppressed in the presence of a dominant gene. If the two recessive alleles occur at a locus, then the trait is expressed.

 Sex chromosomes:
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The 23rd pair of chromosomes determine sex: Males are
XY and females are XX.
Non-sex chromosomes are autosomes
 X-linkage: Genes carried on the X-chromosome.
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Since males only have one X chromosome, any recessive gene on the X-chromosome will be expressed in males.
In females, such recessive genes may be suppressed by a dominant gene on her other X-chromosome.
X-linkage explains why males are prone to disorders caused by recessive genes on the X chromosome.
Hemophilia is an X-linked disorder.

 Modifier genes: Genes that influence a trait indirectly.
 For example, a dominant gene affects whether people can get early cataracts, but modifier genes determine how serious the cataracts are likely to be.
 Often these modifier genes are located on different chromosomes.

 Genes work together.
 Most traits studied by psychologists are influenced by multiple genes (polygeny)
 Most genes influence more than one trait
(pleiotropy).

 Recessive genes are hard to get rid of, even if they are highly deleterious or even lethal.
 That's because they are typically masked by dominant genes.
 Even if both parents are recessive for a harmful gene like PKU, only 25% of their offspring would be homozygous for the trait.

 What would the above figure look like if only the mother was a carrier?
 What would it look like if one parent was homozygous for the recessive gene?
 What would happen to all of this if PKU was dominant instead of recessive?
 Some disorders are caused by dominant genes.
 Huntington's chorea is a lethal gene, but it's effects don't show up until age 35-40.
 Why would this type of lethal gene survive in the population?

 Some recessives are actually beneficial if the person is heterozygous for the condition.
 The example for the latter is Sickle Cell
Anemia.
 Sickle Cell Anemia benefits people living in areas infested by malaria.
 Heterozygotes are superior to either homozygous condition.

Chromosomal disorders: Down syndrome
 Chromosomal disorders:
 Down syndrome is caused by nondisjunction of the 21st chromosome during meiosis.
 As a result, the child has three 21st chromosomes instead of the normal two.
 Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder but it is not caused by having a harmful gene

Chromosomal disorders: Down syndrome

Chromosomal disorders: Down syndrome karyotype

BEHAVIOR GENETICS
 Behavior genetics challenges the behaviorist perspective of John Watson who famously wrote:
 "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specific world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select — a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even into beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors."

BEHAVIOR GENETICS
 1.) BEHAVIOR GENETICS STUDIES IDIOGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT: What combination of genetic and environmental on average affect where people are on the normal curve.

BEHAVIOR GENETICS
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2.) BASIC CONCEPTS:
PHENOTYPE = OBSERVABLE OR MEASURABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
 HAIR COLOR, IQ
GENOTYPE = GENETIC COMPLEMENT OF
PERSON
 HAVING A RECESSIVE GENE FOR COLOR
BLINDNESS
POLYGENY: MANY GENES INFLUENCE A TRAIT
BUT NO ONE GENE HAS A MAJOR EFFECT
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HUNDREDS OF GENES INFLUENCE IQ AND
PERSONALITY;
Few, if any cause more than 1% of the variation

GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS: Active
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GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: WAYS
THAT GENETIC TENDENCIES BECOME CORRELATED
WITH PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENTS.
1.) ACTIVE GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
(NICHE-PICKING):
 CHILD SEEKS OUT ENVIRONMENTS AS A RESULT OF
GENETIC INFLUENCES
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CHILD WITH A SENSATION SEEKING TEMPERAMENT
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 The active genotype-environment interaction probably increases in importance as the child grows older. Why?

GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS: Evocative
 2.) EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE →
ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: CHILD
EVOKES ENVIRONMENTS AS A RESULT
OF GENETIC INFLUENCES
 CHILD WITH A DIFFICULT
TEMPERAMENT EVOKES NEGATIVE
RESPONSES IN CAREGIVERS; CHILD
WITH A SUNNY DISPOSITION GETS
POSITIVE RESPONSES.

GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS: Evocative
 2.) EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION: CHILD EVOKES ENVIRONMENTS AS A
RESULT OF GENETIC INFLUENCES
 Children with violent natural parents and children with non-violent natural parents are adopted into separate families, and the adoptive families are compared.
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Children with violent natural parents have adoptive parents who use harsh discipline.
Children with non-violent natural parents have adoptive parents who use mild discipline.
This "environmental" effect is the result of an evocative genotype → environment effect: Aggressive, difficult children evoke harsh parenting.

GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS: Passive
 3.) PASSIVE GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION:
 CHILD IS PASSIVE RECIPIENT OF
ENVIRONMENTS WHICH FIT WITH
HIS/HER GENOTYPE.
 INTELLIGENT PARENTS HAVE CHILD
WITH GENETIC POTENTIAL FOR
INTELLIGENCE;
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PARENTS ALSO PROVIDE A GREAT DEAL OF
INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION WHICH
MESHES WITH THE CHILD'S GENETIC
POTENTIAL.

GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS: Passive
 3.) PASSIVE GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION:
P
P=parent
C=Child g=genes e= environment g e
C

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SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES:
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES SHARED BY
CHILDREN IN THE SAME FAMILY.
 EXAMPLE: CHILDREN IN SAME FAMILY GO TO
SAME SCHOOL, HAVE SAME ALCOHOLIC
MOTHER OR AFFECTIONATE MOTHER, ETC
UNSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES:
DIFFERENT CHILDREN RECEIVE DIFFERENT
ENVIRONMENTS; OR DIFFERENT CHILDREN
RESPOND TO THE SAME ENVIRONMENT
DIFFERENTLY;
 EXAMPLE: DIFFERENT BIRTH ORDER, SEX
DIFFERENCES, PEER RELATIONSHIPS

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UNSHARED ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: DIFFERENT
CHILDREN RECEIVE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS; OR
DIFFERENT CHILDREN RESPOND TO THE SAME
ENVIRONMENT DIFFERENTLY;
 EXAMPLE: DIFFERENT BIRTH ORDER, SEX
DIFFERENCES
According to Plomin et al. (2001), unshared environmental influences are typically far more important than shared environmental influences.
Notice that the unshared environment idea is linked to the active child concept (Why?) and is used to explain the fact that adoptive siblings and even biologically related siblings are typically not very similar.
As the text says, 'Clearly, researchers in individual differences can no longer assume a homogeneous home environment for all siblings; be alert to this fact when you read the reports and conclusions of such studies.'

Reaction Range: The range of phenotypic expression depending on different environments of different quality.

Reaction Range: Different people have different reaction ranges; they respond differently to the same environments.

IQ score
Genotype A
Genotype B
Genotype C
Genotype D
______________________________
Abusive Poor Average Enriched
Quality of Environment

 CANALIZATION: THE GENETIC RESTRICTION OF
A PHENOTYPE TO A SMALL NUMBER OF
DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES, PERMITTING
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES TO PLAY ONLY A
SMALL ROLE IN THESE OUTCOMES;
 Genes restrict the extent to which the environment can influence the phenotype.
 A highly canalized phenotype is not much influenced by environmental influences.
 A weakly canalized phenotype is open to environmental influences.

 Adoption Studies: Comparison of adopted children to natural and adoptive families.
 Correlations with natural family indicate genetic influence;
 correlations with adoptive family indicate environmental influences.
 Assumption: environment before adoption does not systematically affect the behavior studied.

 Findings: Adopted children's IQ scores are correlated with those of their biological parents, indicating genetic influence.
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Their IQ scores are also correlated with their adoptive parents at age 7, indicating environmental influence.
However, at age 18, there is no correlation between adopted children and their adoptive parents after
18 years of living together!!!
Not on test: Notice that, again, as noted in Table 2-
4 on p. 72, there is a distinction between beneficial effects of adoption on the average IQ of adoptees while nevertheless, the adoptees remain more highly correlated with their biological parents.
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Correlations are independent of the mean.

 The findings of adoption studies are influenced by the range of the subject population.
 Researchers try to study children adopted into a wide range of environments so that they will not underestimate the effects of environmental differences.
 In general, a wider range, especially if it included abusive, highly stressful environments, would usually result in a lower estimate of genetic influences. Why?

 Monozygotic (MZ) (identical) twins: Twins that share the same sperm and egg.
 Dizygotic (DZ) (fraternal) twins: Twins that have different sperm and egg.
 Genetically they are no more alike than any other two siblings.

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Environmental influences are indicated if MZ twins and DZ twins have about the same correlations for a trait.
Genetic influences are indicated if MZ twins are substantially more similar than genetic twins.
Assumption: Environmental influences do not tend to make
MZ twins more similar than DZ twins.
 This would occur if parents treat MZ twins more similarly than DZ twins because, for example, it's cute to have them dress alike and if this procedure actually made their personalities or IQ more similar.
 One way to get around this is to study MZ twins reared apart, especially if they are reared in radically different environments.

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Table 2.5
MZ twins reared together
MZ twins reared apart
DZ twins reared together
Siblings reared together:
Parent and Child:
Correlations for IQ scores
.86
.79
.60
.47
.40
Foster parent and child at age 7: .31
 at age 18:
 Siblings reared apart:
.00
.24
 Cousins: .15

THE DEGREE OF GENETIC INFLUENCE INCREASES AS
CHILDREN APPROACH ADULTHOOD.
Genetic Influences are stronger in adulthood than among children.
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1.) CORRELATIONS OF MZ TWINS STAY
HIGH WHILE CORRELATIONS FOR DZ TWINS
DECLINE
IQ CORRELATIONS FOR MZ AND DZ TWINS
AGE
6 MO
MZ
.75
DZ
.72
12 MO
24 MO
36 MO
4 YR
.68
.81
.88
.83
.63
.73
.79
.71
6 YR
8 YR
15 YR
.86
.83
.88
.59
.66
.54

THE DEGREE OF GENETIC INFLUENCE INCREASES AS
CHILDREN APPROACH ADULTHOOD.
Genetic Influences are stronger in adulthood than among children.
 2.) ADOPTION STUDIES a.) CORRELATION BETWEEN ADOPTIVE PARENTS AND
ADOPTED CHILDREN DECLINES FROM .35 TO ZERO
 AGE 7: r=0.35
AGE 17: r=0.00
 b.) IQ OF ADOPTED CHILDREN DECLINES TO CLOSE TO
THE IQ OF NATURAL PARENTS
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AGE 7: IQ OF ADOPTED CHILDREN = 110
AGE 17: IQ OF ADOPTED CHILDREN = 95
 EXPLANATION: ACTIVE GENOTYPE → ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION (NICHE-PICKING) BECOMES MORE
IMPORTANT AS CHILDREN GET OLDER.

 CONCLUSION: DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS WITHIN THE
"NORMAL" OR "AVERAGE" RANGE DO NOT HAVE MUCH
INFLUENCE ON IQ.
 HOWEVER, ABUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS CAN AND DO AFFECT IQ.
AVERAGE VS ABUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Minor Gain from
Better Normal
Environments
IQ score
_____________________________________________
Abusive “Good enough” Average Enriched
Quality of Environment
Abusive Environments
Dramatically lower IQ

 A recent study by Turkheimer suggests less heritability (genetic influence) at the lower end of the socioeconomic scale, and much higher heritability at the higher ends.
 The idea is that in better environments, the vast majority of variation is caused by genetic variation.
 But in poor environments, more variation is caused by bad environments.
 However, other studies have not found this effect except in clearly abusive environments.

Rank Order versus Average Effects of Adoption
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One classic adoption study showed that adopted children often averaged
20 or more IQ points higher than their biological mothers.
Because in this study the adoptive parents tended to be more highly educated and more socially and economically advantaged than the biological parents, this result was probably due to the more stimulating home environment that the adoptive parents provided.
But note also that, despite this environmental influence on development, individual differences seemed still to be substantially influenced by genetic inheritance.
The rank ordering of the children's IQ scores more closely resembled that of their biological mothers than that of their adoptive parents.
The children whose biological mothers had the lowest IQ scores were likely to have lower IQ scores than the children whose biological mothers scored higher.
Thus, although the absolute level of intellectual development was apparently boosted by the environmental influences provided by the adoptive parents, individual differences among the adopted children in intellectual performance —that is, their relative standings in this regard— appeared to stem more from their biological inheritance than from the increased intellectual stimulation provided in their adoptive homes.

Rank Order versus Average Effects of Adoption
CHILDREN ADOPTED NEAR BIRTH
120
111
115
129
125
Adoptive Parents: Average IQ= 120
114
112
110
108
106
Adopted Children: Average IQ = 110
94
92
90
88
86
Natural Parents: Average IQ = 90
On average, adopted children gain 20 IQ points, but individual differences are affected by natural parents’ IQ

Rank Order versus Average Effects of Adoption (not on test)
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TESTED AT AGE 7:
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION IS IMPORTANT:
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AVERAGE OF AC (110) > AVERAGE OF NP (90);
THIS IS AN AVERAGE EFFECT OF ADOPTION OF 20 IQ
POINTS.
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STUDIES TEND TO SHOW THAT THIS AVERAGE EFFECT
WASHES OUT AS THE CHILDREN APPROACH
ADULTHOOD.
 GENETIC VARIATION IS IMPORTANT:
1.) AVERAGE OF AC (110) < AVERAGE OF AP (120)
 2.) POSITIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN AC AND NP

Interactions between Genes and
Environments
 Interactions between genes and environments modeled by Gottlieb's bi-directional model.
 Note that the environmental effects on the genes refer to turning the genes on or off, not to actually modifying the genes.
 In the mallard duck, a 'genetically governed preference' for the sounds of other ducks is modified by exposing them to different sounds before they are born.
 The idea would be that a different gene would be turned on, not that the duck's genes are changed.

Interactions between Genes and
Environments
 Interactions between genes and environments modeled by Gottlieb's bi-directional model.
 Tennis and testosterone: Loss affects
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 behavior (slumping posture) psychological state (low self-esteem) neural activity in certain parts of the brain; the genes for testosterone are turned off.
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But the genes haven't been changed by these events.
 When the person later wins a match, the genes may turn on again.

Interactions between Genes and
Environments: Gottlieb’s model

 The developmental stage of the child affects whether the environment has an influence
 Example: Critical periods for the effects of teratogens on the fetus.
 Environmental influences are dependent on timing.
 Genetic systems determine when the environment may have an influence.

 The developmental stage of the child affects whether the environment has an influence
 PKU: Effects of dietary intervention on
PKU depend on when the intervention is attempted. Earlier intervention is more effective.

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Heritability: A statistical estimate of the contribution of genetic differences to phenotypic differences in traits, such as intelligence or personality.
Traits with high heritability are mainly influenced by genetic differences:
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Most of the differences we see among people are the result of genetic differences.
Low heritability is the opposite: Most of the differences we see among people are the result of environmental differences.
Heritability may be different for different groups and under different environmental conditions.
Heritability may change with age. (In general, genetic influence becomes stronger with age.)
What would happen to heritability if everyone was raised in the same environment?
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Since there are no environmental differences, all of the differences in the population would be due to genetic differences.
This means the heritability would be 1.00
—all of the variation would be explainable by genetic differences between individuals.

 Heritability is a proportion of the entire variation that is due to genetic variation and therefore ranges between 0 and 1.
 A heritability of 1 would mean that all of the variation is genetic, a heritability of 0 would mean that all the differences are caused by different environments.
 A heritability of .5 is common for many traits and means that about half of the variation is the result of people having different genes and about half is the result of their being in different environments.

 Psychologists value behavior genetics not just because it reveals genetic influences, but because it also tells us lots about environmental influences.
 Examples:
 passive, evocative, and active (niche picking) genotype → environment interaction
 shared versus unshared environmental influences.

 Strong genetic effects do not rule out environmental influences.
 There may be strong correlations between biological relatives for, say IQ (indicating relatively high heritability), but children may still show a general rise in IQ levels as a result of adoption (indicating environmental influence).
 Genetic influences increase with age rather than decrease.
 Genes affect developmental change, and not all genes are turned on at birth:
 Many genes, like the genes for puberty and higher cognitive processing, are not turned on until later in development.
 Puberty, baby teeth, gray hair, and Piaget's stages are influenced by genes turning on and off during development.