Advanced Placement Government Vocabulary
Unit 1
Chapter 1:
Key terms:
Power- the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person
Authority- the right to use power
Legitimacy- political authority conferred by law, public opinion, or constitution
Democracy- a term used to describe a political system in which the people are said to rule, directly or indirectly
Direct or participatory democracy- a political system in which all or most citizens participate directly by either holding
office or making policy, the town meeting, in which citizens vote on major issues, is an example of
participatory democracy
Representative democracy- a political system in which leaders and representatives acquire political power by means of
a competitive struggle for people’s vote, This is a form of government used by nations that are called
democratic
Elite- an identifiable group of persons who posses a disproportionate share of some valued resource (ex. Money or
political power)
Marxists- people who believe that those who control the economic system also control the political one
Bureaucrats- the appointed officials who operate government agencies from day to day
Pluralist- a theory that competition among all affected interests shape public policies
Additional Vocab:
Bureaucratic theory- the theory that institutions have fallen under the control of bureaucrats, but bureaucrats are
intellectual
Initiative- a procedure allowing voters to submit a proposed law to a popular vote by obtaining a required number of
signatures
Marxist theory- the theory that government is just a reflection of underlying economic forces
Nongovernmental elitist theory- nongovernmental elites make the most decisions, but not composed of corporate
leaders
Pluralist theory- power is widely dispersed so that no elite has a monopoly over another, but all contribute
Referendum- the practice of submitting a law to a popular at election time, the law may be proposed by voter’s
initiative or by the legislature
Chapter 2:
Key Terms:
Unalienable- based on nature and providence rather than on the preferences of people
Articles of confederation- the constitution drafted by the newly independent states in 1777 and ratified in 1781. It
created a week national government that couldn’t levy taxes or regulate commerce. In 1789 it was replaced
by our current constitution in order to create a stronger national government.
Constitutional convention- a meeting of delegates in 1787 to revise the articles of confederation, Which produced a
totally new constitution still in use today
Shays’s rebellion- a rebellion in 1787 led by Daniel shays and other ex-revolutionary war soldiers and officers to
prevent foreclosure of farms as a result of high interest rates taxes. The revolt highlighted the weakness of the
articles and bolstered support for a stronger national government.
Great compromise- a compromise made at the constitutional convention of 1787 that reconciled the interests of small
and large states by allowing the former to predominate in the senate and the later in the house. Under the
agreement each state gets 2 representatives in the house, regardless of size. But allotted representatives on the
basis of population in the house
Republic- a form of democracy in which the power is vested in representatives selected by means of popular
competitive elections
Judicial review- the power of the court to declare acts of the legislative and executive to be unconstitutional and hence
null and void
Checks and balances- the power of the legislative, executive, and judicial braches of government to block some acts by
the other two branches
Federalism- a political system in which ultimate authority is shared between a central and state government
Separation of power- a principle of American government whereby constitutional authority is shared by three separate
branches of government
Factions- according to James madison, a group of people who seek to influence public policy in ways contrary to the
public good
Federalists- supporters of strong central government who advocate ratification of the constitution, after ratification of
they founded a political party supporting a strong executive and alexander Hamilton’s economic policies
Antifederalists- opponents of strong central government who campaigned against ratification of the constitution in
favor of a confederation of largely independent states, antifederalists successfully marshaled public support
for a federal bill of rights, after ratification they formed a political party to support states rights
Federalist papers- series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and john jays were published in
new your newspapers in 1787-1788 to convince new Yorkers to adopt the newly proposed constitution
Coalition- an alliance among different interest groups or parties to achieve some political goal
Writ of habeas corpus- a court order police official, sheriff or warden who has a person in custody to bring the prisoner
before a judge to show sufficient cause for his or her detention, designed to prevent illegal arrests and
imprisonment
Bill of the attainder- law that declares a person without trial to be guilty of a crime, state legislatures and congress are
forbidden to pass such acts by article 1 of the constitution
Ex post facto law- law that makes criminal a act that was legal when it was committed, state legislatures and congress
are forbidden to pass such acts by article 1 of the constitution
Bill of rights- a list of individual rights and liberties
Amendments- changes or additions made to the US constitution
Line-item veto- ability of an executive to veto some provisions in an appropriations bill but approve others. This is a
power that the president doses not have
Additional Vocab:
Amendment process- amendment are proposed by a 2/3 vote of both houses of congress or by a convention called by
congress at the request of 2/3 state legislature, and ratified by approval of 3/4 of the states
Bicameral- government system made up of 2 houses
Unicameral- government system made up of 1 house
Constitution- the supreme laws of the United States of America
Declaration of independence- Tomas Jefferson wrote to England about why the US was seceding, list of grievances
Natural rights- god given writes that can’t be taken away and that it is the job of the government to protect
New jersey plan- (small state plan) wanted every state to be represented equally (senate)
Virginia plan- (large state plan) wanted the representation of each state to be based on the population of that state
(house of representatives)
Ratification- constitution needed to be approved/accepted by 9 of the 13 original colonies to take effect
Chapter 3:
Key terms:
Devolution- the current efforts to scale back the size and activity of the government and to shift respectabilities for a
wide range of domestic programs from Washington to state. In recent years these have been welfare
healthcare and job training
Block Grants- Grants of money from the federal government to states for programs in certain general areas rather than
for specific kinds of programs
Federalism- a political system in which ultimate authority is shared between a central and state government
Sovereignty- supreme or ultimate political authority; a sovereign government is one that is politically and legally
independent from other governments
Unitary system- a system in which sovereignty is wholly in the hands of the national government so that subnational
political units are dependent on its will
Confederation/ confederal system- a political system in which states or regional government retains ultimate authority
except for those powers that are expressly delegated to a central government
Federal system- a system in which sovereignty is shared so that on some matter the national government is supreme
and on other the state/regional government is supreme
Federal regime- political system in which local units of government have a special protected existence and can make
final decisions over some governmental activities
“Necessary and proper” clause- (elastic clause) final paragraph of article 1 section 8 of the constitution, which
authorizes congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers
Nullification- a theory first advanced by James Madison and Tomas Jefferson that the states have the right to (declare
null and void) nullify a federal law that, in the states opinion, violates the constitution. The theory was
revived by John C. Calhoun from south Carolina in opposition of federal effort to restrict slavery
Dual federalism- constitutional theory that the national and state government have defined areas of authority,
especially over commerce
City- a municipal corporation or municipality that has been chartered by a state to excise certain defined powers or
provide certain specific service
Municipal Corporation or municipality- a city
Home-rule charter- a charter that allows the city government to do anything that is not prohibited by the charter or by
state law
Dillon’s rule- a legal principal that holds the terms of a city charter is to be interpreted narrowly. Under this rule a
municipal corporation can excise only those powers expressly given it or those powers necessarily implied
General-act charter- a charter that applies to a number of cities that fall within certain classifications, usually based on
population
Special-act charter- a charter that denies the powers of a certain named city and lists what the city can and cant do
Ordinance- a law passed and enforced by a city government
County- largest territorial unit between a city and a town
Special-District government or authority- local or regional government with responsibility for some single function
such as administering school, handling sewage, managing airports
School district- a special district government responsible for administering public schools
Police power- the power of a state to promote heath, safety, and morals
Initiative- a procedure allowing voters to submit a proposed law to a popular vote by obtaining a required number of
signatures
Referendum- the practice of submitting a law to a popular at election time, the law may be proposed by voter’s
initiative or by the legislature
Recall- a procedure in effect in over 20 states, whereby voters can vote to remove an elected official from office
Grants-in-aid- federal funds provided to states and localities, typically provide for airports, highways, education and
major welfare services
Categorical Grants- Federal grants for specific purposes defined by federal law, Such grants usually require that the
state or locality put up money to match the federal grant
Revenue Sharing- a law providing for the distribution of a fixed amount or share of federal tax revenues to the state for
spending on almost any government purpose, distribution was intended to send money to the poorer
Conditions of aid- federal rule attached to the grants that states receive; states must agree to abide by these rules in
order to receive the grants
Mandate- rules imposed by federal government on the states as conditions for obtaining federal grants or requirements
that states pay the cost of certain national defined programs
Second-order devolution- flow of power or responsibilities from state to local governments
Third-order devolution- the use of nongovernmental political organizations to implement public policy
Additional Vocab:
Cooperative federalism- national and state governments work together to achieve a common goal
Dual federalism- constitutional theory that the national and state government have defined areas of authority,
especially over commerce
Gibbons v. Ogden- power to regulate interstate commerce was granted to congress by the commerce clause
McCulloch v. Maryland- allowed a federal bank that couldn’t be taxed by state governments
Unfunded mandates- rules imposed by federal government on state government without the promise of a federal grant
Unit 2
Chapter 4:
Key Terms:
Political Culture- a broadly shared way of thinking of political and economic life that reflects fundamental
assumptions about how government should operate. It is distinct from political ideology which refers to a
more or less consistent set of views about the political government ought to follow. Up to a point people
sharing political culture can disagree about ideology
Political Subculture- fundamental assumptions about how the political process should operate that distinguishes
citizens by regions, religions, and other characteristics
Political Ideology- a more or less consistent set of views as to the policies that government ought to pursue
Civic Duty- a belief that one has an obligation to participate in civic and political affairs
Civic Competition- a belief that one can affect government policies
Work Ethic- a belief in the importance of hard work and personal achievements
Class Consciousness- an awareness of belonging to a particular socioeconomic class whose interests are different from
those of others. Usually used in reference to workers who view there interests as opposite those of managers
and business owners
Orthodox- people who believe that moral rules are derived from the commands of god or the laws of nature; these
commands and laws are relatively clear, unchanging, and independent of individual moral preferences. They
are likely to believe that traditional morality is more important than individual liberties and should be
enforced by government and communal norms
Progressive- a person who believes that moral rule is derived in part from an individual’s beliefs and circumstances of
modern life. Progressives are likely to favor government tolerance and the protection of individual choice
Political Efficiency- a citizen’s belief that he/she can understand and influence political affairs. This sense is divided
into two parts: internal efficiency (confidence in a citizen’s own abilities to understand and take pert in
political affairs) and external efficiency (a belief that the system will respond to a citizen’s demands)
Internal Efficiency- confidence in a citizen’s own abilities to understand and take pert in political affairs
External Efficiency- a belief that the system will respond to a citizen’s demands
Additional Vocab:
Culture War- is a struggle between two sets of conflicting cultural values
Equal Opportunity- a stipulation that all people should be treated similarly, unhampered by artificial barriers or
prejudices or preferences, except when particular distinctions can be explicitly justified .
Chapter 5:
Key Terms:
John Q. Public- Colloquial term for average citizens and what they want to believe
Middle America- A phrase coined by Joseph Kraft in a 1968 newspaper column to refer to Americans who have moved
out of poverty buy not yet affluent (rich) and who cherish traditional middle-class values
Silent Majority- A phrase used to describe people, whatever the economic status, who uphold traditional values.
Especially against the counterculture of the 1960s
Social Status- A measure of ones social standings obtained by combining factors such as education, income, and
occupation
Religious Traditions- The moral teachings of religious institutions on religious, social, and economic issues
Gender Gap- Difference in political views and voting behaviors of men and women.
Poll- A survey of pubic opinions
Random Sample- A sample selected in such a way that any member of the population being surveyed has an equal
chance of being interviewed
Liberal- In general, a person who favors more active federal government for regulating business, supporting social
welfare, and protecting minority rights, but who prefer less regulations of private social conduct
Conservative- In general, a person who favors more limited and local government, less government regulations of
markets, more social conformity to traditional norms and values, and tougher policies towards criminals
Political Ideology- A more or less consistent set of views as to the policies that government ought to pursue
Sampling Error- The difference between the results of two surveys or samples
Libertarians- People who wish to maximize personal liberty on both economic and social issues, they prefer a small,
week government that has little control over the ether economic or personal lives of citizens
Populists- People whom hold liberal views on economic matters and conservative views on social matters. Prefer a
strong central government that reduces economic inequality, regulates businesses, and imposes stricter social
and criminal sanctions. The name and view have origins in an agricultural based social movement and the
party of the 1880s-90s that sought to curve the power and influence economic trade
Political Elite- An identifiable group of persons who posses a disproportionate share of some valued resource (ex.
Money or political power)
Norm- A standard of right or proper conduct that help determine the range of acceptable social behavior and policy
opinions
Additional Vocab:
Moderate- an individual who is not extreme, partisan (biased), nor radical
Political Cleavage- the division of voters into different blocs
Political Socialization- how individuals develop their political attitude, and the factors that influence their political
beliefs
Public opinion- how people feel about things
Unit 3
Chapter 6:
Key terms:
Voting-age Population- the citizens who are eligible to vote after reaching a minimum age requirement, in the US
citizens must be at least 18 in order to vote
Registered voters- people who are registered to vote, while almost all adult Americans are theoretically eligible to vote,
only those who have completed the a registration form by the required date may do so.
Motor-voter law- a bill passed by congress in 1993 to make it easier for Americans to register to vote. The law, which
went into effect in 1995, requires states to allow voter registration by mail, when one applies for a drivers
license, and at a state office that serve the disabled or poor.
Literacy tests- a requirement that citizens pass literacy test in order to register to vote, It was established in many states
to prevent former slaves (most of whom were illiterate) from voting. Illiterate white were allowed to vote by
a “grandfather clause” added to the law saying that a person could vote, even if he didn’t meet the legal
requirements, if his or her ancestors had voted before 1867.
Poll tax- a requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote, it was adopted by many states to prevent
former slaves (most of whom were poor) from voting, it is now unconstitutional
Grandfather clause- a clause added to registration laws allowing people who didn’t meet the registration requirement
to vote if there ancestors had voted before 1867 (before African Americans were legally allowed to vote) this
was to exempt poor and illiterate whites from registration requirements established to keep former slaves
from voting. Supreme court declared the practice unconstitutional in 1915.
White primary- the practice of keeping African Americans from voting in primary elections (at the time the only
meaningful election in the one-party south was the Democratic Party) through arbitrary implementation of
registration requirements and intimidation. Such practices were declared unconstitutional in 1944.
Australian Ballot- a government-printed ballot of uniform size and shape to be cast in secret that was adopted by many
states around 1890 in order to reduce voting fraud associated with party printed ballots cast in public.
Activists- Individuals usually outside of government, who actively promote a political party, philosophy, or issue they
care about.
Additional vocab:
Conventional Participation- Activities that we expect of good citizens. For most people, participation occurs every few
years at election time. People strongly committed to politics are more likely to participate on a regular basis.
Unconventional Participation- Activities that are legal but often considered inappropriate. Young people, students,
and those with grave concerns about a regime’s policies are most likely to engage in unconventional
participation.
15th Amendment- citizens right to vote shall not be denied on account of race alone
26th Amendment- citizens right to vote shall not be denied on account of age (once citizen is 18)
19th Amendment- citizens right to vote shall not be denied on account of sex
Voter Apathy- lack of caring among voters in an election, Voter apathy is often cited as a cause of low turnout among
eligible voters.
Voting Rights Act of 1965- federal law that increases government supervision of local election practices, suspended the
use of literacy tests
Chapter 7:
Key Terms:
Political Party- a group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying them with a label by which they are
known to the electorates, a “party identification”
Mugwumps or Progressives- the faction of the republican party of the 1890s to 1910s composed of the reformers who
opposed the use of patronage and party bosses and favored the leadership of experts. After 1910 they evolved
into a nonpartisan “good government” movement that sought to open up the political system and curb the
abuse of parties.
Critical or Realigning periods- Periods during which a sharp lasting shift occurs in the popular coalition supporting
one or both parties. The issue that separate the two parties change, and so the kind of voters supporting each
party change.
Split ticket- voting for candidate of different political parties for various political offices in the same election.
Straight ticket- Voting for candidates who are all of the same party
Office-bloc Ballot- a ballot listing all candidates for a given office under the name of that office; also called the
“Massachusetts” ballot
Party-column ballot- a ballot listing all candidates of a given party together under the name of that party; also called th
“Indiana” ballot
National Convention- a meeting of party delegates elected in state primaries, caucuses, or conventions that is held
every four years. It is primary purpose is to nominate president and vice presidential candidates and to ratify
a campaign platform
National Committee- a committee of delegates from each state and territory that runs party affairs between national
conventions
Congressional Campaign Committee- a party committee in congress that provides funds to members who are running
for reelection or to would-be members running for and open seat or challenging a candidate from the
opposition party
National Chairman- a paid, full-time manager of a party’s day-to-day work who is elected by the national committee
Superdelegates- party leaders and elected officials who become delegates to the national convention without having to
run in primaries or caucuses. Party rules determine the percentage of delegate seats reserved for party
officials
Political machine- a party organization that recruits its members by dispensing patronage (tangible incentives such as
money, political jobs, or an opportunity to get favor from government) and that is characterized by a high
degree of leadership control over membership activity
Ideological party- a party that values principled stands on issues above all else, includes winning. It claims to have a
comprehensive view on American society and the government radically different from that of the established
parties
Solidary incentives- the social reward that leads people to join a local or state political organization, people who find
politics fun and want to meet others who share their interests are said to respond to solidary incentive.
Sponsored Party- a local or state political party that is largely staffed and funded by another organization with
established networks in the community
Personal following- the political support provided to candidate on the basis of personal popularity and networks
Two-party System- an electoral system with two dominant parties that compete in the state or national elections, third
party has little chance of winning
Plurality system- an electoral system used in almost all American elections, in which the winner in the person who gets
the most votes, even if he/she didn’t get the majority of the votes
Caucus- an association of members of congress created to advocate a political ideology or a regional, ethnic, or
economic interest
Additional Vocab:
Divided Government- a government in which the presidency is controlled by one party and congress is controlled by
the other
One-issue Party- involves political campaigning or political support based on one essential policy area or idea.
Minor party- receive small number of votes
Winner-take-all system- an electoral system used in almost all American elections, in which the winner in the person
who gets the most votes, even if he/she didn’t get the majority of the votes
Chapter 8:
Key Terms:
Incumbent- a person currently in office
Coattails- the tendencies of lesser-known or weaker candidates to profit in an election by the presence on the ticket of a
more popular candidate.
Political Action Committee- a committee set up and representing a corporation, labor union, or special interest group
that raises and spends campaign contributions on behalf of one or more candidates or causes.
Malapportionment- drawing the boundaries of political districts so that districts are very unequal in population
Gerrymandering- drawing the boundaries of political districts in bizarre or unusual shapes to make it easy for
candidates of the party in power to win elections in those districts
Sophomore Surge- an increase in the votes that congressional candidates usually get when they first run for reelection
Position Issue- an issue dividing the electorates on which rival parties adopt different policy positions to attract voters
Valence Issue- an issue on which voters distinguish rival parties by the degree to which they associate each party or
candidate with conditions, goals, or symbols the electorate universally approves or disapproves of. Examples
of such issues are economic prosperity and political corruption.
General Election- and election used to fill an elective office.
Primary Election- an election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidate that will run for each
party’s ticket. Before the presidential election, a presidential primary is held to select delegates to the
presidential nominating convention of the major parties.
Closed Primary- a primary election limited to registered party members, prevents members of other parties from
crossing over to influence the nomination of an opposing party’s candidate.
Open Primary- a primary election that permits voters to choose on Election Day the primary in which they wish to
vote. They may vote for candidates of only one party.
Blanket Primary- a primary election that permits all voters, regardless of party, to choose candidates. A democratic
voter, for example, can vote for both democratic and republican candidates for nomination.
Runoff Primary- a second primary election held in some states when no candidates receives a majority of the votes in
the first primary; the runoff is between the two candidates that received the most votes in the first primary,
runoffs are common in the south.
Presidential Primary- a primary election held to select delegates to the presidential nominating convention of the major
parties.
Independent Expenditures- spending by political action committees on political matters that is to be done directly and
not by giving money to a candidate or party
Soft Money- funds solicited by individuals, corporations, and unions that are spent on political activity, Such as voter
registration campaigns and voting drives, rather them on behalf of specific candidates. These funds need not
be reported to the Federal Election Commission
Prospective Voting- voting for a candidate because one favors his/her ideas for addressing issues after the election
(prospective means “forward looking”)
Retrospective Voting- voting for or against the candidate or party in office because one likes or dislikes how things
have gone in the recent past (retrospective means “backwards looking”
Additional Vocab:
Caucus- an association of members of congress created to advocate a political ideology or a regional, ethnic, or
economic interest
Federal Elections Commission- is an independent regulatory agency that was founded in 1975 by the United States
Congress to regulate the campaign finance legislation in the United States.
Spots- short television adds
1974 Federal Campaign Reform Law- placed a legal limit on campaign contributions
Party Coalition- the unions of different political parties or groups for a specific purpose
Visuals- campaign activity that appears on news broadcasts
Party Realignments- when the balance of power between a countries’ political parties changes greatly
Unit 4
Chapter 9:
Key Terms:
Lobby- an interest group organized to influence government decisions, especially legislation. To lobby is to attempt to
influence such decisions.
Lobbyist- a person attempting to influence government decisions on behalf of the group (lobby)
Interest Group- an organization of people sharing common interests or goals that seek to influence the making of
public policy
Incentive- a valued benefit obtained by joining a political organization
Solidary Incentives- the social rewards that lead people to join a local or state political organization. People who find
politics fun and want to meet others who share their interests respond to solidary incentives.
Material Incentives- benefits that have monetary value, including money, gifts, services, or discounts received as a
result of ones membership in a political organization
Purposive Incentive- the benefits that comes from serving a cause or principle from which one does not personally
benefit.
Ideological Interest Groups- political organizations that attract members by appealing to their political convictions
with coherent sets of (usually) controversial principles
Public-Interest Lobby- a political organization, the stated goals of which will principally benefit non-members
Social Movement- A widely shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or political order. The civil rights
movement of the 1960s was such an event. As are broadly shared religious revivals, may have liberal or
conservative goals.
Political Cue- a signal telling a congressional representative what values (liberal or conservative) are at stake in a voteWho is for/against a proposal- and how that issue fits into his/her own set of political beliefs or party agenda
Ratings- an assessment of a representative’s voting record on issues important to an interest group, Such rating are
designed to generate public support or opposition for a legislator.
Additional Vocab:
Direct Mail- the delivery of advertising material to recipients of postal mail
Feminist Movement- a series of campaigns for reforms on issues such as reproductive rights, domestic
violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence, all of which
fall under the label of feminism.
Grassroots Lobbying- is lobbying with the intention of reaching the legislature and making a difference in the decisionmaking process.
Institutional Interests- individuals or groups representing other organizations
Membership Interest- interest groups made of those who join voluntarily
Political Action Committee (PACs)- a committee set up and representing a corporation, labor union, or special interest
group that raises and spends campaign contributions on behalf of one or more candidates or causes.
Unions- the state of being united or joined for a specific cause
“Dirty Dozen”- list of the worst economic companies, made up by the environmental interest group
Revolving Door- a movement of personnel between roles as legislators and regulators and the industries affected by the
legislation and regulation.
Public Interest Research Groups- non-profit organizations that employ grassroots organizing, direct
advocacy, investigative journalism, and litigation to affect public policy.
Chapter 10:
Key Terms:
Muckraker- a journalist who searches through the activities of public office and organizations seeking to expose
conduct contrary to the public interest, the term was first used by president Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 to
warn that antibusiness journalists, while valuable, could be excessively negative.
Sound Bite- a brief statement no longer then a few seconds used on radio and television news broadcasts.
Equal Time Rule- a rule of the federal communications commission (FCC) stating that if a broadcaster sells time to
one candidate for office, he or she must be willing to sell equal time to the opposing candidate.
Right-Of-Reply Rule- a rule of the federal communications commission that if a person is attacked on a broadcast
(other then a news program) the person has the right to reply over that same station.
Political Editorializing Rule- a rule of the federal communications commission that if a broadcaster endorses a
candidate, the opposing candidate has the right to reply
Fairness Doctrine- a former rule of the federal communications commission that requires broadcasters to give time to
opposing views if they broadcast a program giving one side of a controversial issue.
Market (television)- an area easily reached by a television signal, there are about 200 such markets in this country.
Trial Balloon- information provided by the media by an enormous public office as a way of testing the public reaction
to a possible policy or appointment.
Loaded Language- words that reflect a value judgment, used to persuade the listener without making an argument. For
example, if someone likes a politician, he might call him “the esteemed senator smith”
Selective Attention- paying attention on to those parts of a newspaper or broadcast story with which one agrees. Studies
suggest that this is how people view political ads on television.
Routine Stories- media reports about public events that are regularly covered by a reporter and that involve simple
easily described acts or statements. For example “the president takes a trip” or “ congress passes a bill”
Featured Stories- media reports about public events knowable to any reporter who cares to inquire. But involving acts
and statements not routinely covered by a group of reporters. Thus a reporter must take the initiative and
select a particular event as newsworthy, decide to write about it, and persuade the editors to run it.
Insider Stories- information that’s not usually made public that is made public because somebody with inside
knowledge tells a reporter. The reporter may have worked hard to learn these facts, in which case it is called
“investigative reporting” or some official may have wanted the story to get out, in which case it is called a
leak.
Adversarial Press- national press that is suspicious of officialdom and eager to break an embarrassing story about
public officials.
Background Story- a public officials explanations of current policy provided to the press on the condition that the
source remain anonymous.
Additional Vocab:
Attack Journalism- the current era of media coverage that seizes upon any bit of information or rumor that might call
into question the qualifications or character of a public official.
Investigative journalism- a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, often
involving crime
Press Secretary- is a senior adviser who provides advice oh how to deal with the news media and, using news
techniques, to help their employer keep a positive image.
Yellow journalism- the use of sensationalism to attract a large readership for a newspaper.
White House Press Corps.- the group of journalists or correspondents located mainly in Washington, to cover the
president of the united states.
C-span- (cable satellite public affairs network) a private non-profit cable television network created in 1979 by the
cable television industry as a public service that televises many proceedings of the federal government.
National media-
Popular Press- getting news papers out to the public by making them cheaper to buy, less one sided articles and more
agreeable subjects
Freedom of Information Act- allows for the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information and
documents controlled by the United States government
FCC (Federal Communications Commission)- regulates intra/interstate communications by means of radio, television.
Party Press- parties created sponsored and controlled newspapers, making them very opinionated and brought the
viewership down.
Sensationalism- editors bias in mass media in which events/topics are overhyped to gain viewership
Unit 5
Chapter 11:
Key Terms:
Bicameral Legislature- a landmark made up of two chambers or parts. The US congress is a bicameral legislature
composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
Filibuster- an attempt to defeat a bill in the Senate by talking indefinitely, thus preventing the Senate from taking
action on the bill.
Marginal Districts- Political districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close
elections, typically with less then 55 percent of the vote.
Safe Districts- districts in which incumbents win by margins of 55 percent or more
Conservation Coalition- an alliance between republicans and conservative democrats
Majority Leader- the legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House of
Representatives or the Senate.
Whip- a senator or representative who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking.
Rounds up members when important votes are to be taken. And attempts to keep a nose count on how voting
on controversial issues is likely to go.
Party Polarization- a vote in which a majority of democratic legislators oppose a majority of republican legislators
Caucus (Congressional)- an association of members of congress created to advocate a political ideology or a regional,
ethnic, or economic interest.
Standing Committee- permanently established legislative committees that consider and are responsible for legislation
within a certain subject area. Examples are the House Ways and Mean Committee.
Select Committees- congressional committee appointed for a limited time and purpose
Joint Committee- committees on which both representatives and senators serve. An especially important kind of joint
committee is the conference committee, made up of representatives and senators appointed to resolve
differences in the Senate and House versions of the same piece of legislation before final passage.
Conference Committee- representatives and senators appointed to resolve differences in the Senate and House versions
of the same piece of legislation before final passage.
Public Bill- a legislative bill that deals with matters of general concern, a bill involving defense expenditures is a public
bill; a bill pertaining to an individual’s becoming a naturalized citizen is not.
Private Bill- a legislative bill that deals only with specific, private, personal, or local matters rather then with general
legislative affairs. The main kind includes immigration and naturalization bills (referring to particular
individuals) and personal clam bills.
Simple Resolution- an expression of opinion either in the House of Representatives or the senate to settle housekeeping
or procedural matters in either body, Such expressions are not signed by the president and do not have the
force of law.
Concurrent Resolution- an expression of congressional opinion without the force of a law that requires the approval of
both House and Senate but not of the president, Used to settle housekeeping and procedural matters that
affect both houses.
Joint Resolution- a formal expression of congressional opinion that must be approved by both the houses of congress
and by the president. Joint resolutions proposing a constitutional amendment need not to be sighed by the
president.
Multiple Referral- a congressional process whereby a bill may be referred to several committees that considers it
simultaneously in whole or in part. For instance, 14 committees in the House and 9 in the Senate considered
the 1988 trade bill simultaneously.
Sequential Referral- a congressional process by which a speaker may send a bill to a second committee after the fist
has finished acting, or may refer parts of bill to separate committees.
Discharge Petition- a device by which any member of the House, after a committee has had a bill for thirty days, may
petition to have it brought to the floor. If a majority of the member agrees, the bill is discharged from the
committee. The discharge petition was designed to prevent a committee from killing a bill by holding it for
too long.
Close Rule- an order from the House Rules Committee that sets a time limit on debate and forbids a particular bill from
being amended on the legislative floor.
Open Rule- an order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the legislative floor.
Restrictive Rule- an order from the House Rules Committee that permits certain kinds of amendments but not others to
be made into a bill on the legislative floor.
Rider- an amendment on a matter unrelated to a bill that is added to the bill so that it will “ride” to passage through the
congress. When a bill has a lot of riders, it is called a Christmas tree bill.
Christmas Tree Bill- a bill that has a lot of riders attached to it.
Quorum- the minimum number of member that must be present for a business to be conducted in congress
Quorum Call- a calling of the role in either house of congress to see whether the number of representatives in
attendance meats the minimum number required to conduct official business.
Cloture Rule- a rule used by the senate to end or limit debate designed to prevent “talking a bill to death” by filibuster.
For a bill to pass in the senate, three-fifths of the entire senate membership must vote for it.
Double-Tracking- a procedure to keep the senate going during a filibuster in which the disputed bill is shelved
temporarily so that the senate can get on with other business.
Voice Vote- a congressional voting procedure in which members shout “yea” in approval or “nay” in disapproval;
allows members to vote quickly and anonymously on bills.
Division Vote- a congressional voting procedure in which members stand and are counted.
Teller Vote- a congressional voting procedure in which members pass between two tellers, the “yeas” first and the
“nays” second. Since 1971 the identities of members in a teller vote can be “recorded”.
Roll-Call Vote- a congressional voting procedure that consists of members answering “yea” or “nay” to their names.
When roll calls were handled orally, it was a time-consuming process in the House. Since 1973 an electronic
voting system permits each house member to record his or her vote and learn the total automatically.
Pork-Barrel Legislation- legislation that gives tangible benefits to (highways, dams, post office) to constituents in
several districts or states in hopes of winning their vote in return.
Franking Privileges- the ability of members of congress to mail letters to their constituents free of charge by
substituting their facsimile signature (frank) for postage.
Additional Vocab:
Congressional Budget Office- a federal agency within the legislative branch of government that provides economic
data to congress.
Congressional Research Service- works exclusively with congress, providing policy and legal analysis to committees
and members of both the house and the senate, regardless of party affiliation
General Accounting Office- an independent non-partisan federal agency that acts as the investigative arms of congress,
making the executive branch accountable to congress and the government accountable to the citizens
Incumbency- the existing holder of political office
Rule 22- rule used by coalition senators to end debate on the senate floor
17th Amendment- direct election of senators by popular vote
Presidential Veto- article 1 section 7 of the constitution gave the president to right to veto legislation passed by
congress
Seniority System- the practice of granting privileges to members of congress who have served longer
Speaker of The House- the presiding officer of the chamber
Unit 6
Chapter 12:
Key Terms:
Divided Government- a government in which one party controls the white house and another controls one or both
houses of congress.
Unified Government- a government in which the same party controls both the white house and both houses of
congress.
Representative Democracy- a political system in which leaders and representatives acquire political power by means of
a competitive struggle for people’s vote, This is a form of government used by nations that are called
democratic.
Direct or participatory democracy- a political system in which all or most citizens participate directly by either holding
office or making policy, the town meeting, in which citizens vote on major issues, is an example of
participatory democracy.
Pyramid Structure- a method of organizing a president’s staff in which most presidential assistants report through a
hierarchy to the president’s chief of staff.
Circular Structure- a method of organizing a president’s staff in which several presidential assistant report directly to
the president.
Ad Hoc Structure- a method of organizing a president’s staff in which several task forces, committees, and informal
groups of friends and advisers deal directly with the president.
Perks- a short form of perquisites, meaning “fringe benefits of office.” Among the perks of political office for the highranking officials are limousines, expense accounts, free air travel, fancy office, and staff assistants.
Cabinet- by custom the cabinet includes the head of the fourteen major executive departments.
Veto Message- one of two ways for a president to disapprove of a bill sent to him by congress. The veto message must
be sent to congress within ten days after the president receives the bill.
Pocket Veto- one of the two ways for the president to disapprove of a bill sent to him by congress. If the president does
not sign the bill within ten days his receiving it and congress has adjourned within that time, the bill does not
become a law.
Line-item veto- ability of an executive to veto some provisions in an appropriations bill but approve others. This is a
power that the president doses not have.
Trustee Approach- the view that an elected representative should act on his or her own best judgment of what public
policies require.
Delegate Model- the view that an elected representative should represent the opinion of his or her constituents.
Legislative Veto- the rejection of a presidential or administrative-agency action by a vote of one or both of the houses
of congress without the consent of the president. In 1983 the Supreme Court declared legislative veto to be
unconstitutional.
Impeachment- a formal accusation against a public official by the lower house of the legislative body. Impeachment is
merely an accusation and not a conviction.
Lame Duck- a politician who is still in office after having lost the reelection bid.
Additional Vocab:
Electoral College- the institution that officially elects the president and vice president every 4 years
Independent Agencies- agencies that exist outside of the federal executive department
25th Amendment- deals with succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the
office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities.
Executive Privilege- the power claimed by the President of the United States and other members of the executive
branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions by the legislative and judicial branches of
government.
Presidential Coattails- the ability of a Presidential candidate to bring out supporters who then vote for his party's
candidates for other offices
22nd Amendment- sets a term limit for the election to the office of the president of the United States.
Impoundment of Funds- an act by a President of the United States of not spending money that has
been appropriated by the U.S. Congress.
Presidential Succession- defines who may become or act as President of the United States upon the incapacity, death,
resignation, or removal from office of a sitting president or a president-elect.
White House Office- is an entity within the Executive Office of the President of the United States. The White House
Office is headed by the White House Chief of Staff, who is also the head of the Executive Office.
Unit 7
Chapter 13:
Key Terms:
Bureaucracy- a large, complex, organization composed of appointed officials. The department and agencies of the U.S.
make up the federal bureaucracy.
Spoils System- another phrase for political patronage (The practice of giving the fruits of a party’s victory, such as jobs
and contracts, to the loyal members of that party)
Laissez-Fair- an economic theory that government should not regulate or interfere with commerce
Discretionary Authority- the extent to which appointed bureaucrats can choose courses of action and make policies that
are not spelled out in advance by law.
Competitive Service- the government office to which people are appointed on the grounds of merit as ascertained by a
written examination or by having met certain selection criteria (such as training, education attainments, or
prior experience)
Name-Request Job- a job to be filled by a person whom the government agency identified by name
Iron Triangle- a close relationship between an agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group that often
becomes a mutually advantageous alliance.
Issue Network- a network of people in Washington-based interest groups, on congressional staffs, in universities and
think tanks, and in mass media who regularly discuss and advocate public policies (say heath care or auto
safety). Such networks are split among political, ideological, and economic lines.
Authorization Legislation- legislative permission to begin or continue a government program or agency, An
authorization bill may grant permission to spend a certain sum of money, but that money does not ordinarily
become available unless it is also appropriated. Authorization may be annual, multiyear, or permanent.
Appropriation- a legislative grant of money to finance a government program
Trust Funds- funds for government programs that are collected and spent outside the regular government budget; the
amounts are determined by preexisting law rather than by annual appropriations. The social security trust
fund is the largest of these.
Annual Authorization- annual legislative permission to begin or continue a government program or agency, An
authorization bill may grant permission to spend a certain sum of money, but that money does not ordinarily
become available unless it is also appropriated.
Committee Clearance- the ability of a congressional committee to review and approve certain agency decisions in
advance and without passing a law. Such approval is not legally binding on the agency, but few agency heads
will ignore the expressed wishes of committees.
Legislative Veto- the rejection of a presidential or administrative-agency action by a vote of one or both of the houses
of congress without the consent of the president, In 1983 the Supreme Court declared legislative veto to be
unconstitutional.
Red tape- Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that must be followed to get something done
Additional Vocab:
Civil Service- a branch of the governmental service in which individuals are employed on the basis of professional
merit as proven by competitive examinations
Excepted Service- a branch of the government service in which employees are hired outside of the OPM (office of
personnel management), by agencies and other organizations.
Congressional Oversight- the oversight by the U.S. Congress on the executive branch, which includes many federal
agencies (Major ways of oversight are through authorization, appropriation, and Investigative power)
Merit System- the process of hiring and promoting employees based on their ability to preform a job, rather then their
political connections (opposite of the spoil system)
Patronage- The practice of giving the fruits of a party’s victory, such as jobs and contracts, to the loyal members of
that party
Pendleton Act- tried to transfer jobs from the patronage system to the merit system in 1883
National Performance Review- an interagency task force to reform the way the United States government worked/
works during the Clinton administration.
Office of Personnel Management- an independent federal agency that manages the civil service of the federal
government
Chapter 14:
Key Terms:
Judicial Review- the power of the courts to declare an act of the legislature and of the executive to be unconstitutional
and hence null and void
Strict-Constructionist Approach- the view that judges should decide cases on the basis of the language of the
constitution
Activist Approach- the view that judges should discern the general principle underlying the constitution and its often
vague language and asses how best to apply them in contemporary circumstances, in some cases with the
guidance of moral or economic philosophy.
Constructional Court- a federal court exercising the judicial power in article III of the constitution and whose judges
are given constitutional protection: they may not be fire, nor may their salaries be reduced while they are in
office. The most important constitutional courts are the Supreme Court, the 94 district courts and the 12
courts of appeals.
District Court- the lowest federal courts where federal cases begin. They are the only federal courts where trials are
held. There are total f 94 district courts in the United States and it territories.
Courts of Appeals- the federal courts with the ability to review decisions made by the federal district courts, regulatory
commissions, and certain other federal courts. Such courts have no original jurisdiction; they can hear only
appeals. There are a total of 12 courts of appeals in the United States and its territories.
Legislative Court- the court that is created by congress for some specialized purpose and staffed with judges who do
not enjoy the protection of article III of the constitution. Legislative courts include the Court of Military
Appeals and the territorial court.
Litmus Test- a test of ideological purity, a way of finding out whether a person is a dyed-in-the-wool liberal or
conservative or what his or her views on constitutional questions.
Federal-Question Cases- cases concerning the constitution, federal law, or treaties over which the federal courts have
jurisdiction as described in the constitution.
Diversity Cases- cases involving citizens of different states over which the federal courts have jurisdiction as described
in the constitution.
Civil Law- the body of rules defining relationships among private citizens, It consists of both statutes and the
accumulated customary law embodied in judicial decisions (the “common law”).
Criminal Law- the body of rules defining offenses that, though they harm an individual (such as murder, rape, and
robbery), are considered to be offenses against society as a whole and as a consequence warrant punishment
by and in the name of society.
Writ of Certiorari- “made more certain” an order issued by a higher court to a lower court to send up the record of a
case for review. Mast cases reach the Supreme Court through the Writ of Certiorari, issued when at least 4 of
the nine justices feel that the case should be reviewed.
In Forma Pauperis- a procedure whereby a poor person can file and be heard in court as a pauper, free of charge.
Fee Shifting- the law or rule that allows the plaintiff (the party that initiates the lawsuit) to collect its legal from the
defendant if the defendant loose
Plaintiff- the party that initiates the lawsuit to obtain a remedy for an injury to his or her rights
Standing- a legal concept establishing who is entitled to bring a lawsuit to court, For example, an individual must
ordinarily show personal harm in order to acquire standing and be heard in court.
Sovereign Immunity- a doctrine that a citizen cannot sue the government without its consent, By statute congress has
given its consent for the government to be sued in many cases involving a dispute over a contract or damage
done as a result to negligence.
Class-Action Suit- a case brought into court by a person on behalf of not only himself or herself but also all other
people in the country under similar circumstances. For example, in brown vs board of education, the
Supreme Court decided that not only Linda Brown but also all other similarly situated had the right to attend
a local public school of their choice without regards to race.
Brief- a legal document prepared by an attorney representing a party before the court. The document sets forth the facts
of the case, summarizes the law, gives the argument for the side, and discusses other relevant cases.
Amicus Curiae- “a friend of the court” refers to interest ground or individuals, not directly involved in a suit, who may
file legal briefs or make oral argument in support of one side.
Per Curiam Opinion- a brief unsigned opinion issued by the Supreme Court to explain its ruling.
Opinion of the Court- a Supreme Court opinion written by one or more justices in the majority to explain the decision
in a case
Concurring Opinion- a Supreme Court opinion written by one or more justices who agree with the majority’s
conclusion but for different reasons.
Dissenting Opinion- a Supreme Court opinion written by one or more justices in the minority to explain the minority’s
disagreement with the Court’s ruling.
Stare Decisis- “let the decision Stand” the practice of basing judicial decisions on precedents established in similar
cases decided in the pas.
Political Question- an issue that the Supreme Court refuses to consider because it believes the constitution has left it
entirely to another branch to decide. It view of such issues may change over time, however.
Remedy- a judicial order preventing or redressing a wrong or enforcing a right
Additional Vocab:
Dred Scott v. Sandford- ruled in 1857 the slaves and their decedents were not citizens.
Marbury v. Madison- established judicial review.
McCulloch v. Maryland- established a precedent of federal courts using judicial review to strike down congressional
legislation.
Senatorial Courtesy- senator submits a list of acceptable candidate for the president to look over.
Soliciting General- the second ranking member of the justice department
Unit 8
Chapter 18:
Key Terms:
McCarthyism- changes that unfairly or dishonestly tarnish the motives, attack the patriotism, or violate the rights of
individuals, especially of political opponents. Refers to the numerous unsubstantiated accusations of
communism made against public and private individuals by Senator Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s.
Freedom of Expression- the constitutional right of Americans to “freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievance” as outlined in the
First Amendment to the Constitution.
Freedom of Religion- the religious right of Americans outlined in the First Amendment of the Constitution. The
amendment states “congress shall make no laws respecting an establishment of religion; or abridging the free
exercise thereof.”
Prior Restraint- the traditional view of the press’s free speech rights as expressed by William Blackstone, the great
English journalist. According to this view the press is guaranteed freedom from censorship (that is, the rules
telling it in advance what it can publish.) After publication, however, the government can punish the press for
material that is judged libelous or obscene.
Clear-and-Present-Danger Test- the legal interpretation that reconciles two views of the First Amendment right to free
speech, the first that congress could not pass any law to restrict speech and the second that it could punish
harms caused by speech. Proposed by Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes in 1919, it held that
congress could punish only speech that created a “clear and present danger” of bringing about the actions that
congress is authorized to prevent.
Due-Process Clause- protection against arbitrary deprivation of life, liberty, or property as guaranteed in the Fifth and
Fourteenth Amendments.
Libel- a written statement that falsely injures the reputation of another person.
Symbolic Speech- an act that conveys a political message, such as burning a draft card to protest the draft.
Free-Exercise Clause- the clause in the First Amendment of the Constitution stating that congress shall make no law
prohibiting the “free exercise” of religion.
Establishment Clause- the clause in the First Amendment of the Constitution stating that congress shall make no law
“respecting an establishment of religion.”
Wall-of-Separation Principle- a Supreme Court interpretation of the establishment clause in the First Amendment that
prevents government involvement with religion, even on a non-preferential basis.
Exclusionary Rule- a rule that holds that evidence gathered in violation of the Constitution cannot be used in trial. The
rule has been used to implement two provisions of the bill of rights (the right to free from unreasonable
search and seizures, 14th Amendment, and the right not to be compelled to give evidence against oneself, 15th
Amendment.)
Search Warrant- an order from a judge authorizing the search of a place; the order must be describe what is to be
searched and seized, and the judge can issue it only if he or she is persuaded by the police that good reason
(probable cause) exists that a crime has been committed and that the evidence bearing on the crime will be
found at a certain location.
Probable Cause- good reason exists that a crime has been committed and that the evidence bearing on the crime will be
found at a certain location.
Good-Faith Exception- admission at a trial of evidence that is gathered in violation of the Constitution if the violation
results from a technical or minor error.
Additional Vocab:
Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the Bill of Rights guarantees personal liberties and limit
the power of the government.
Civil Liberties- those protections against government power embodied in the bill of rights and similar legislation. Civil
liberties include the right to free speech, free exercise religion, and right to fair trial.
Commercial Speech- speech where the speaker is more likely to be engaged in commerce, where the intended audience
is commercial or actual or potential consumers, and where the content of the message is commercial in
character.
Gitlow v. New York- created the “bad tendencies doctrine” which held that speech could be restricted even if it only has
a tendency to lead to illegal actions.
Mapp v. Ohio- the exclusionary rule meant that any unlawfully gathered evidence could not be used in a federal case,
but such evidence was introduced at all times in state courts.
Miranda v. Arizona- court found that all defendants must be informed of all their legal rights before they are arrested.
Patriot Act- in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress granted broad police authority to the
federal, state and local government to interdict, prosecute, and convict suspected terrorists.
Slander- defamatory speech that is spoken.
Obscenity- any statement or act which strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time.
Selective Incorporation- process by which the Supreme Court has selectively applied the 14th amendment to state law.
Chapter 19:
Key Terms:
Civil Rights- the right of all citizens to vote, to receive equal treatment before the law, and share equally with other
citizens the benefits of public facilities.
Suspect Classification- classifications of people on the basis of their race and ethnicity. The courts have ruled that laws
classifying people on these grounds be subject to “strict scrutiny.”
Jim Crow- a slang expression for African Americans that emerged in the 1820s and came to signify the laws and
governmental practices designed to segregate blacks from whites, especially in the American South.
Separate-but-Equal Doctrine- the doctrine established in the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), In which the Supreme Court
ruled that a state could provide “separate but equal” facilities for African Americans.
De Jure Segregation- racial segregation that occurs because of laws or administrative decisions by public agencies.
When state laws, for example, requiring blacks and whites to attend separate schools or sit in separate
sections of the bus.
De Facto Segregation- racial segregation that occurs not because of laws or administrative decisions, but as a result of
patterns of residential settlement. To the extent that blacks and white live in separate neighborhoods,
Neighborhood schools will often be segregated de facto.
Nonviolence Civil Disobedience- a philosophy of opposing the law one considers unjust by peacefully violating it and
allowing oneself to be punished as a result.
Strict Scrutiny- the standard by which the Supreme Court judges classifications based on race. To be accepted such a
classification must be closely related to a “compelling” public purpose.
Affirmative Action- the requirement, imposed by law or administrative regulation, that an organization (business firm,
government agency, labor union, school, or college) take positive steps to increase the number or proportion
of women, African Americans, or other minorities in its membership.
Reverse Discrimination- using race or sex to give preferential treatment to some people.
Equality of Opportunity- a view that it is wrong to use race or sex either to discriminate against or give preferential
treatment to minorities or women.
Compensatory action- an action designed to help members of disadvantaged groups, especially minorities and women,
catch up, usually by giving them extra education, training, or services.
Additional Vocab:
Brown v. Board of Education- the 1954 case in which the Supreme Court overturned the “separate but equal” standard
as it applied to schools (9-0).
Civil Rights Act (1964)- Increased the rights of blacks and other minorities, as well as giving the federal government
greater means of enforcing the law.
Civil Rights Movement- worldwide series of political movements for equality before the law peaked in the 1960s.
14th Amendment- granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States,” which included former
slaves recently freed. In addition, it forbids states from denying any person "life, liberty or property, without
due process of law" or to "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” By
directly mentioning the role of the states, the 14th Amendment greatly expanded the protection of civil rights
to all Americans and is cited in more litigation than any other amendment.
Reasonableness Standard- a test that asks whether the decisions made were legitimate and designed to remedy a
certain issue under the circumstances at the time. Courts using this standard look at both the ultimate
decision, and the process by which a party went about making that decision.
Freedom Rides- civil rights tactic where activists would right a bus into a segregated area to try and desegregate the
public transportation system.
Voting Rights Act of 1965- federal law that increased government supervision of local election practices, suspended
the use of literacy tests, and expanded the effort to register voters.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg B.O.E.- set the guidelines for all subsequent cases involving school segregation.
Martin Luther King, Jr.- was an American pastor, activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil
Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil
disobedience based on his Christian beliefs.
Montgomery Bus Boycott- a boycott of the bus system in Montgomery, Alabama after Rosa Parks was arrested for not
surrendering her seat to a white man.
NAACP- (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) is an African-American civil rights
organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social,
and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination".
Roe v. Wade- established national abortion guidelines.
Unit 9
Chapter 16:
Key Terms:
Monetarism- an economic philosophy that assumes inflation occurs when there is too much chasing too few goods.
Monetarism suggests that the proper thing for the government to do is to have a steady, predictable increase
in the money supply at a rate about equal to the growth in the economy’s productivity.
Keynesianism- an economic philosophy that assumes that the market will not automatically operate at a fullemployment, low-inflation level. It suggests that the government should intervene to create the right level of
demand by pumping more money into the economy (when demand is low) and taking it out (when demand is
great.)
Economic Planning- an economic philosophy that assumes that government should plan, in varying way, some part of
the country’s economic activity. For instance, in times of high inflation, it suggests that the government
regulate the maximum price that can be charged and wages that can be paid, at least in the larger industries.
Another form of planning, called industrial policy, would have the government planning or subsidizing
investments in industries that need to recover or in new industries that could replace them.
Price and Wage Controls- in times of high inflation, it suggests that the government regulate the maximum price that
can be charged and wages that can be paid, at least in the larger industries.
Industrial Policy- the government planning or subsidizing investments in industries that need to recover or in new
industries that could replace them.
Supply-Side Theory- an economic philosophy that holds that sharply cutting taxes will increase the incentive people
have to work, save, and invest. Greater investments will lead to more jobs, a more productive economy, and
more tax revenue for the government.
Reaganomics- the federal economic policy of the Reagan administration, elected in 1981. These policies combined a
monetarist (money supply theory) fiscal policy, supply-side tax cuts, and domestic budget cutting. Their goal
was to reduce the size of the federal government and stimulate economic growth.
Fiscal Policy-an attempt to use taxes and expenditures to affect the economy.
Budget Deficit- a situation in which the government spends more money than it takes in from taxes and fees.
Budget Surplus- a situation in which the government takes in more money than it spends.
Monetary Policy- an attempt to alter the amount of money in circulation and price of money (the interest value) to
affect the economy.
Fiscal Year (FY)- the period from October 1 to September 30 for which the government appropriations are made and
federal books are kept. A fiscal year is named after the year in which it ends (thus fiscal 1995 or FY 9, refers
to the 12 month period ending September 30, 1995.
Budget- a document that announces how much the government will collect in taxes and spend in revenues and how
those expenditures will be allocated among various programs.
Budget Resolution- a proposal submitted by the house and senate budges committees to their respective chamber
recommending a total budget ceiling and a ceiling for each of several spending areas (such as health or
defense) for the current fiscal year. These budget resolutions are intended to guide the work of each
legislative committee as it decides what to spend in its area.
Entitlements- a claim for government funds that cannot be abridged without violating the rights of the claimant: for
example, social security benefits or payments on a contract.
Sequester- automatic, across-the-board cuts in certain federal programs that are triggered by law when congress and the
president cannot agree on a spending plan.
Additional Vocab:
Appropriations Bills- a legislative motion (bill) that authorizes the government to spend money. It is a bill that sets
money aside for specific spending.
Federal Reserve Board- charged with overseeing the Federal Reserve Banks and with helping implement monetary
policy of the United States.
Gramm-Rudman Act- set budget reduction targets to balance budget, but fair to eliminate the loopholes.
Congressional Budget Act of 1974- created the Congressional Budget Office, with budget committees in both the
house and the senate.
Inflation- a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.
Income Tax- a government levy (tax) imposed on individuals or entities (taxpayers) that varies with the income or
profits (taxable income) of the taxpayer.
Office of Management and Budget- responsible for preparing the budget of the United States, can be used to control
and manage the executive agencies for the president.
Pocketbook Issue- an issue whose settlement will affect financial resources.
Progressive Tax Structure- a tax where the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases.
Council of Economic Advisors- responsible for helping the president makes national economic policy (designed to
increase prosperity).
16th Amendment- allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on
the United States Census.
Secretary of the Treasury- provides estimates on revenue the government can expect from existing taxes, and what will
result from changing the tax laws.
Tax Loopholes- deductions, exemptions, and exclusions by which people shelter their income from taxation.
Unemployment- the unemployed tend to vote against the incumbent
Tax Reform Act of 1986- changes taxes from high rates with big deductions to low rates with much smaller deductions.
Chapter 17:
Key Terms:
Majoritarian Politics- the politics of policy-making in which almost everybody benefits from the policy and almost
everyone pays for it.
Client Politics- the politics of policy-making in which some small group receives the benefits of the policy and the
public at large bears the cost. Only those who benefit have an incentive to organize and press their case.
Insurance Program- a self-financing government program based on contributions that provide benefits to unemployed
or retired persons.
Assistance Program- a government program financed by general income taxes that provide benefits to poor citizens
without requiring contributions from them.
Means Test- an income qualification that determines whether one is eligible for benefits under government programs
reserved for lower income groups.
Earned Income Tax Credit- a provision of the 1975 tax law that entitles working families with children to receive
money from the government if their total income fall below a certain level.
Service Strategy- a policy of providing poor people with education and job training to help lift them from poverty.
Income Strategy- a policy of giving poor people money to help lift them out of poverty.
Additional Vocab:
Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC)- a federal welfare program established in the 1930s to try and help
families with dependent children whose income fell below the federal determined minimum. Abolished by
the Welfare Reform Act in 1966, which tried to reduce the number of people living on public assistance.
Entitlements- a claim for government funds that cannot be abridged without violating the rights of the claimant: for
example, social security benefits or payments on a contract.
Food Stamps- government provided debit cards that help the poor pay for food, used to help improve the diet and
buying power of the poor.
Medicaid- provides medical and health-related services to the low-income parents, children, seniors, and people with
disabilities. Funded by the states and federal government and managed/run by the individual states.
Medicare- Provides government assistance to people older then 65 for health care.
Medicare Act of 1965- created health care benefits for those over the age of 65.
Social Security- an entitlement program mandated by law, that the government must pay benefit to all who meet the
programs requirements.
Social Securities Act of 1935- an act to provide for the general welfare by establishing a system of Federal old-age
benefits.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)- replaced AFDC in 1996 with new conditions such as requiring
adults to find work within 2 years or to be cut off, and a 5 year limit of welfare eligibility.
Unit 10
Chapter 20:
Key Terms:
Iron Curtain- a metaphor first used by Winston Churchill to describe a military and political barrier maintained by the
former Soviet Union to prevent free travel and communication between Eastern and Western Europe.
Cold War- refers to the non-military struggle between the United States (and its allies) and the former Soviet Union
(and its allies) following World War II. (“Cold War” is distinguished from a “Hot” or shooting War).
Worldviews- more or less comprehensive mental picture from the critical problems facing the United States in the
world and of the appropriate and inappropriate ways of responding to these problems.
Isolationism- the view that the United States should withdraw from world affairs, limit foreign aid, and avoid
involvement in foreign wars.
Domino Theory- an influential theory first articulated by president Eisenhower holding that if an important nation were
to fall into communist hands, other neighboring countries would follow suit. Eisenhower used the metaphor
of a row of dominoes falling in sequence to illustrate his point.
Containment- (antiappeasment) the view that the United States should contain aggressive nations (such as the former
Soviet Union)
Disengagement- a view that the United States involvement in Vietnam had led to military defeat and political disaster
and that further similar involvement should be avoided. Also known as “New Isolation.”
Third World- originally a French term referring to the nations neutral in the cold war between the United States and the
former Soviet Union. The term now refers to the group of developing nations in Africa, Asia, Latin America,
and the Middle East.
Human Rights- in foreign policy, the view that our government should act to enhance the rights of people living in
other countries
Military-Industrial Complex- an alleged alliance among key military, governmental, and corporate decision-makers
involved in weapons procurement and military support systems. The phrase was coined by Dwight D.
Eisenhower, who warned Americans about this danger.
Cost Overruns- actual costs that are several times greeter than estimated costs. These occur frequently among private
contractors producing new weapons for the Pentagon.
Gold Plating- the tendency of Pentagon official to ask weapons contractors to meat excessively high requirements.
Addition Vocab:
Chain of Command- a system whereby authority passes down from the top through a series of executive positions or
military ranks in which each is accountable to the one directly superior.
Commander in Chief- the supreme commander of all the armed forces of a nation
Joint Chiefs of Staff- the principal military advisory group to the President of the United States, composed of the
chiefs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force and the commandant of the Marine Corps.
“Imperial Presidency”- a term that became popular in the 1960s and that served as the title of a 1973 volume by
historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. to describe the modern presidency of the United States. The author wrote
The Imperial Presidency out of two concerns; first that the US Presidency was out of control and second that
the Presidency had exceeded the constitutional limits.
National Security Adviser- serves as the chief advisor to a national government on matters of security. He or she is not
usually a member of the Cabinet but is usually a member of various military or security councils.
State Department- the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United
States, equivalent to the foreign minister of other countries. The Department was created in 1789 and was the
first executive department established.
National Security Council- usually an executive branch governmental body responsible for coordinating policy on
national security issues and advising chief executives on matters related to national security.
War Powers Act- a federal law intended to check the president's power to commit the United States to an armed
conflict without the consent of Congress.
Chapter 21:
Key Terms:
Environmental Impact Statement- a report required by federal law that assesses the possible effects of a project on the
environment if the product is subsidized in whole or part by federal funds.
Acid Rain- Precipitation in the form of rain, snow, or dust particles, the increased acidity of which is caused by
environmental factors such as pollutants released into the atmosphere.
Command-and-Control Strategy- a strategy to improve air and water quality, involving the setting of detailed pollution
standards and rules.
Offsets- an environmental rule that a company in an area with polluted air can offset its own pollution by reducing the
pollution from other sources in the area. For instance, an older company that cant afford to pay for new
antipollution technologies may buy pollution credits from a newer company that has reduced its source of
pollution below the level required by law.
Bubble Standard- the total amount of air pollution that can come from a given factory. A company is free to decide
which specific sources within that factory must be reduced and how to meet the bubble standard.
Pollution Allowance (or Banks)- a reduction in pollution below the required by law that can be used to cover a future
plant expansion or sold to another company whose pollution emissions are above the legal requirement.
Additional Vocab:
Clean Air Act of 1970- a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It requires the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to protect the public from
airborne contaminants known to be hazardous to human health.
Clean Air Act of 1990- a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It requires the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to protect the public from
airborne contaminants known to be hazardous to human health, As well as addressing acid rain, ozone
depletion and toxic air pollution.
Global Warming- the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and
its projected continuation
Environmental Protection Agency- an agency of the U.S. federal government which was created for the purpose of
protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by
Congress.
Endangered Species Act- Environmental law designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a
"consequence of economic growth and development untendered by adequate concern and conservation."