A war different for the U. S. as opposed
to the European nations who fought it
U. S. military struggle brief, decisive,
without great cost
Economically—the source of a great
boom
Propelled the U.S. into a position of
international preeminence
Four long-term causes:
Nationalism
Imperialism
Militarism
Formation of a system of alliances
Four long-term causes:
Nationalism: belief—national
interests & national unity
should be placed ahead of
global interests and a nation’s
foreign affairs guided by own
self-interest.
France and Germany
Competed for Euro. leadership
Russia
considered itself protector of
Europe’s Slavic peoples.
One Slavic country was Serbia—
whose people lived under rule of
Austria-Hungary
Serbia was located in a powderkeg region known as the Balkans
Bulgaria,
Greece,
Macedonia,
Romania
and Serbia
formed as
people won
independence
Four long-term causes:
Imperialism: the policy in which
stronger nations extend their
economic, political, or military
control over weaker territories.
Increased, or made worse, by
European nationalism
Four long-term causes:
Militarism: development and use
of military as a tool of diplomacy.
1890: strongest nation in Europe:
Germany
Efficient reserve and draft
systems
Four long-term causes:
1890, strongest navy in world:
Great Britain
1897, Germany began to expand
its sea power
Largest battleships & destroyers
Along with the U. S., France,
Japan and Italy joined the
naval arms race.
Four long-term causes:
Alliance system: mutual defense
Triple Entente:
France, Great Britain, Russia
(Russia separate alliance with
Serbia)
Triple Alliance:
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Serbia wanted to absorb all
Balkan Slavs.
Russia supported the Serbs.
Austria-Hungary feared rebellion
among its Slavic population.
Annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina
1908
Serb leaders were outraged.
Russia Backed Serbia
Germany Backed Austria-Hungary
Serbia wanted to take BosniaHerzegovina away from Austria
Leaders of Russia & Germany
cousins
June 28, 1914. . .
Austro-Hungarian Archduke
Franz Ferdinand and wife
Sofie. . .
. . . are assassinated by a Serb
in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina
23 July: Austria sends harsh
ultimatum to Serbia.
Serbia agrees to demands
28 July: Austria rejects
agreement and declares war.
Russia mobilizes against Austria
and Germany, Austria’s ally,
mobilizes against Russia.
Russian mobilization called
precaution
Germany declares war on
Russia. . .
. . . then on France
Schliffen Plan—through Belgium
Belgium would not grant German
passage claiming neutrality.
Germany invaded Belgium, so. . .
Great Britain, a close ally of Belgium,
declares war on Germany
Central Powers:
•Germany
•Austria-Hungary
•Ottoman Empire
•Bulgaria
Allies:
•Great Britain
•France
•Russia
•Japan
•Italy (6 months)
Marne River
Paris
August 14, 1914—Germans cut
through Belgium into France,
close to Paris.
5 September—French counterattack
First Battle of the Marne
Marne River
Trench
Warfare
After 4 days, Germans retreat—
eventually 60 miles.
Most important event of WW I
500 miles of trench line stretching
from Belgium to Switzerland.
Over the
top
No Man’s Land
Unbelievable slaughter
Example: First Battle of the Somme
1 July 1916-mid-Nov. 1916
British: 60,000 casualties
first day alone!
Total casualties for battle:
1.2 million; 650,000 GE;
420,000 GB; 200,000 FR
Unbelievable slaughter
Battle of Verdun
21 Feb-18 Dec 1916
Total casualties:
500,000 to 600,000
Parts of Verdun battlefield are still
too dangerous for people: mines,
unexploded shells, etc.
Key European Leaders:
Ferdinand
Foch
Douglas
Haig
Key European Leaders:
Erich
Ludendorff
Kaiser
Wilhelm II
Key European Leaders:
Paul von
Hindenburg
Henri-Philippe
Petain
Western front;
Eastern front;
Arabian front;
Italian front;
Dardanelles attack
African front
Be impartial in thought as
well as deed.
Many Americans: not genuinely
impartial
German-Americans and Irish-Americans
sympathized with German cause
Yet, many Americans fervently admired
the British (tradition, culture, political
system
Instinctively many attributed the cause of
the Allies a moral quality denied to
Central Powers
Economic realities also
made it impossible for the
U.S. to deal with the
belligerents on equal terms
British: naval blockade on Germany
U. S., as a neutral, could choose NOT to
trade with both sides; however, could
easily weather not trading with the
Central Powers while not easily being
able to weather an embargo with its
more extensive trade with the Allies
Orders for material from France and G. B.
soared after 1914—led to one of greatest
economic booms in U. S. history
Became the Arsenal of the Allies
New, barbaric tactic used by Germany
Submarine (untersee boots) wolfpacks
New, barbaric tactic used by Germany
Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
New, barbaric tactic used by Germany
Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
1198/ 128 Americans killed
Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
Wilson angrily demanded that Germany
promise not to repeat such outrages
Germans agreed: tensions grew
Early 1916, Germans learned that the
Allies were arming merchant ships to
sink submarines
Germany proclaimed it would fire on
such vessels without warning
Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915)
French Steamer: SS Sussex attacked
by U. Boats
Wilson demanded that Germany abandon
its unlawful tactics
Germans: Sussex Pledge
Events leading to U. S. declaration
of War
Winter 1917: German offensive plus
unrestricted submarine warfare against
U. S. and Allied ships
Attempt to cut off Britain from supplies
Events leading to U. S. declaration
of War
Feb. 25, 1917: Zimmermann Telegram
German foreign secretary,
Arthur Zimmermann sent a
telegram to Heinrich von
Eckhardt, the German
ambassador to Mexico
suggesting if Mexico attacked
the U. S., after the war in
Europe, Germany would help
Mexico regain lost provinces
Mexico demurred; British intercepted the
telegram and gave to the U. S.
Events leading to U. S. declaration
of War
Feb. 25, 1917: Zimmermann Telegram
Events leading to U. S. declaration
of War
March 15, 1917: Tsar Nicholas II of
Russia abdicates
U. S. is spared the
embarrassment of allying
itself with a despotic
monarchy
April 1917:
Army, again, not prepared for
war
Only 200,000 people
Few officers with combat
experience
Out-of-date weapons
Air corps: 55 planes/130
pilots
•National Defense Act of 1916
--Increased size of regular
military to 300,000
--President could order industry
to produce defense material
Selective Service Act of 1917
Newton Baker
Created draft boards
Required mandatory registration
of males 21-30
Increased size of National Guard
24 million registered; 3 million
chosen by lottery; 2 million
served in Europe; 1.5 million
saw combat
Corporal Herman Runkel, 2nd Infantry Div.
U. S. Commander:
Gen. John J. Pershing
British and French
generals wanted to
use Americans as
fillers in their units.
Pershing demanded a separate
American force. Pershing won
Women:
Worked industry
Not allowed by Army; but Navy
let women enlist in non-combat
positions—13,000 served.
Army finally allowed women
to serve as nurses but without
military pay, rank or benefits.
African Americans:
Segregated
units; white
officers
Excluded from
navy & marines
Mostly non-combat
duties. . .
African Americans:
369th Infantry
Regiment: most
front-line combat
duty in U. S. Army
Two won French
Croix de Guerre
The Navy in World War I
U. S. needed to build numerous
warships and merchant ships
but the draft had reduced the
workforce.
U. S. took 4 critical steps
1. Exempted or deferred
shipbuilders from draft
2. Chamber of Commerce—public
relations campaign
3. New construction method—
fabrication
4. Took over private ships &
converted for war use
Overcoming U-Boats
Rear Admiral William S. Sims:
convoy system
Overcoming U-Boats
Additionally: 100 sub-chasers
500 aircraft—anti-U-boat duty
By early 1918—U-boat threat
overcome
U. S. soldiers &
marines called
doughboys—
because they cleaned
their white belts
with pipe clay, or
“dough”
Aggressive combat—
felt Allies too defensive
Wanted U. S. to have a
strong voice at eventual
peace talks
First U. S. action: against German
spring offensive, May 1918.
•Chateau-Thierry—Army
•Belleau Wood--Marines
•First U. S.
attack:
Cantigny—a
success
Other key U. S. actions:
St. Mihiel offensive, August 1918
Meuse-Argonne offensive,
September 1918
Other key facts:
38th Infantry Regt.
“The Rock of the
Marne”
Alvin C. York
• Most decorated
U. S. soldier WWI
• Congressional
Medal of Honor
• Single-handedly:
Captured 132 Germans
 Destroyed several
machinegun nests
Conscientious objector
Captain Eddie
Rickenbacker
American pilot with
most combat
victories—shot down
26 enemy planes in
130 battles
Before the war: race car driver;
set land speed record (134 mph)
New Military Technology
Artillery
German “Big Bertha”—1,800 lb
shell 75 miles
New Military Technology
Machinegun—600
rounds per minute
Zepplins—
dropped bombs
on English
cities; but easy
to shoot down
New Military Technology
Chlorine and
Mustard gas
Germans:
Battle of Ypres,
April 1915
Terrifying weapon of mass
destruction—wiped out two
French divisions at Ypres
New Military Technology
Tanks—Battle of
the Somme, 1916
Aircraft—many
advances
during the war
Liberty Bonds
$23 million by 1920
$10 billion in new taxes
War Industries Board and
Bernard Baruch
Agency created July 1917
Coordinate government
purchases of military
supplies
The WIB wielded powers greater
than any other government agency
had ever possessed
Decided which factories would
convert to production of war
materials
Accomplishments
Major industries: huge
profits
Herbert Hoover:
efficient organization of
domestic food supplies
William McAdoo:
untangled railroads
The Great Migration
The migration of hundreds of thousands of
African-Americans from the rural South to
northern industrial cities
The Great Migration
Push-pull situation
Push: poverty, indebtedness, racism,
and violence in South
Pull: prospect of factory jobs in urban
North and the opportunity to live in
communities where Blacks could
enjoy more freedom and autonomy
Result: dramatic growth in black
communities in northern industrial
cities
Fervent patriotism
Most of the country supported intervention
once the war began
Many enlisted
Women joined Red
Cross chapters
Children: war bonds
Religious revivalism
Billy Sunday
George Creel
Committee on Public
Information
Supervised distribution of
tons of pro-war literature
Encouraged media to
exercise self-censorship
At first attempted to distribute
only facts
4-minute men: 4-minute
talks on subjects pertinent to
the war effort
Committee on Public Information
Espionage Act of 1917
Penalties for spying, sabotage or
obstruction of the war effort
Post Office could ban seditious
material from mail
Sabotage Act of 1918
Any public expression of opposition to
the war was illegal
Most frequent targets: anti-capitalist
groups such as the IWW (Wobblies)
Sabotage Act of 1918 and Sedition
Act of 1918
Eugene V. Debs:
Sentenced to 10 years
in 1918; released 1921
Big Bill Haywood: fled
to USSR
Campaign to purge the U. S. of
all things German
Liberty cabbage
Salisbury Steak
Billy Sunday
Most successful
revivalist in the U. S.
Stirred vast numbers
of Americans and both
reflected and helped
to create a deep and
lasting schism in
the national Christian
community
New Revivalism: a
move by conservative
Christians to fight off Darwinism
November 3, 1918-German sailors and marines
mutiny and refuse to board
ships at Kiel to go to sea.
Mutiny spread throughout
Germany
November 9—people of Berlin
rose in revolt; demanded a
republic
November 10—Kaiser Wilhelm II
abdicates; escapes to the
Netherlands
Germany too exhausted to carry
on with the war
11:00 a.m., November 11, 1918:
Germany signs armistice—a
cease fire that ended the war.
Austria-Hungary & Ottoman
Empire had surrendered a few
days before.
Casualties:
All:
65,038,810 saw action
8,538,315 killed/died
21,219,452 wounded
7,750,919 mis/cap.
37,508,686 total casualties
57.7% of those who saw action
Casualties:
U. S.
4,355,000 saw action
126,000 killed/died
234,300 wounded
4,500 prisoners/missing
364,800 total casualties
8.2% of those who saw action
President Wilson, did not
want to get in the war.
When he did, his main aim
became a lasting peace:
“The War to End All Wars”
On January 18, 1918, 11 months
before the end of the war, Wilson
proposed to Congress a world peace
plan called The Fourteen Points.
Fourteenth Point:
International organization to
address diplomatic crises
The League of Nations
World’s first suggestion for forming
an international organization.
Wilson naïve regarding
attitudes of other Allied
leaders
Big Four
Tremendous
anger
against
Germany
Georges
Clemenceau
Of France
David Lloyd
George of
Great Britain
Vittorio
Orlando
of Italy
Clemenceau: no
more German
invasions of France
Lloyd George: “Make
Germany pay.”
Peace conference did not
include defeated countries
—contrary to custom.
Russia and smaller Allied countries—
also not included
Wilson outnumbered on
most of 14 points.
In order to get the 14th Point,
The League of Nations,
he conceded the other 13 points
June 28, 1919, the
Big Four and defeated
powers gathered at
the Palace of
Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles
created nine new nations
including
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia
and shifted
the boundaries
of other nations
Another view. . .
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia
The Treaty of Versailles
Carved four areas out
of the former Ottoman
Empire & gave them
to France and G. B.
as mandates, or
temporary colonies.
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon &
Palestine
Germany:
Demilitarized: no air force; very
small navy; army of no more than
100,000
Did not specify who the 100,000
could be, however.
Germany:
Required to give Alsace-Lorraine to
France
Pay $33 billion in
reparations (war
damages) to Allies
Had to sign a war
guilt clause saying
Germany was
totally responsible
for World War I.
Treaty of Versailles actually
led to World War II
1. Humiliated Germany
2. Bolshevik government in Russia
felt Big Four ignored its needs
Actually lost more territory than
Germany.
3. Germany stripped of Asian
colonies—could have helped pay
reparations; ignored claims of
colonized people.
Example of ignoring of
peoples of Asian colonies:
Wilson refused to consider proposal
of Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam
Many American leaders
opposed the Treaty of
Versailles
Herbert C. Hoover—
believed it to be too
harsh—predicted dire
economic consequences
Many: sell-out to
imperialism
Many ethnic groups objected: treaty
did not allow for self-determination
in many places
Main opposition to the Treaty
of Versailles in the U. S.:
The League of Nations
Some Republicans, such
as Senator Henry Cabot
Lodge of Massachusetts,
felt the U. S. should be
isolationist: stay out of
European affairs
Under the Constitution, the
U. S. Senate must approve
all treaties.
Republicans controlled both houses
of Congress in 1919
Wilson included only 1 Republican,
and no senators, on treaty
negotiation team.
After losing so much of 14 Points
to the rest of Big Four, Wilson not
willing to compromise with Senate
on League of Nations.
September 1919, Wilson
decided to take the issue
of League of Nations to
the American people.
8,000 miles, 35 speeches, 22 days
62 years old; exhausted from time
spent in France
October 2, 1919—suffers a stroke
Lay paralyzed for > 2 months
Today, under 25th Amendment
(1967), the vice president
would become acting president.
Wilson’s wife,
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson
and his personal aide de
camp, Colonel
Edward M.
House
ran the U. S.
government
Giving in to Republican fears
that joining the League of
Nations would force the U. S. to
form it’s foreign policy in accord
with other members of the League,
the Senate rejected the treaty in
March 1920.
The U. S. never joined the League of
Nations; the League was never a
potent force in the world.
Immediate post-war economy
Raging inflation
1919-1920—prices rose on
average > 15% a year
1920-1921—GNP declined
nearly 10%
100,000 business bankrupt
453,000 farmers lost land
5 Million Americans lost jobs
Post-war economy and labor
Boston Police Strike of 1919
Violence & looting
MA Governor Calvin
Coolidge
called out National Guard
Fired all police officers
Sep 1919: greatest strike in
US history
350,000 steel workers
Indicated high expectations
of workers after the war
Marcus Garvey
Jamaican
Black nationalist
Encouraged Blacks to take
pride in their achievements
and be aware of AfricanAmerican heritage
Return to Africa
Movement
Red Scare
Red Scare
1919: Soviet government formed
Communist International
Modest number of radicals in U. S.
Some responsible for a series of
bombings
The bombings crystallized a
growing determination among many
middle-class Americans to fight
back against radicalism
The Palmer Raids
A. Mitchell Palmer & J. Edgar Hoover
January 1920
Largely unsuccessful; 6,000 arrested
(3 pistols, no dynamite; most released
The Sacco and Vanzetti Case
Nicola Sacco
Bartolomeo Vanzetti
Braintree, MA
Murder of a paymaster; questionnable
evidence; confessed anarchists; bigoted
judge; sentenced to death & electrocuted
The Election of 1920
Republicans:
Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge
Ohio Senator
Gov. of Mass.
“A return to normalcy.”
The Election of 1920
Democrats:
James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt
Ohio governor
Asst. Sec of Navy
The Election of 1920