Learning Objectives
• Define attachment
• Outline key characteristics of attachment
• Explain why children form attachments
1
Definition of Attachment
• A strong, reciprocal, emotional bond
between an infant and caregiver(s)
characterised by a desire to maintain
proximity. Attachments can be secure or
insecure. Infants display attachment
through separation distress, pleasure at
reunion with the caregiver, and stranger
anxiety.
2
Maccoby’s (1980) key
characteristics of attachment:
• Seeking proximity to primary caregiver
– Infant stays close to the main attachment
figure
3
4
Maccoby’s (1980) key
characteristics of attachment:
• Distress on separation
– Separation protest – baby cries carer anxious
5
6
Maccoby’s (1980) key
characteristics of attachment:
• Pleasure when reunited
– Smiles and acts excitedly
7
8
Maccoby’s (1980) key
characteristics of attachment:
• General orientation of behaviour towards
primary caregiver
– Secure base - returns to carer frequently
9
10
Why Do Infants Form Attachments?
• Short-term benefits
– Food
– Protection
– Survival
– Instinctive - genetic
11
Why Do Infants Form Attachments?
• Long-term benefits
– Internal working model for
future relationships
– Hazan and Shaver (1987):
the love quiz
• the kind of lover you are
may be related to the
kind of attachment you
had as an infant
12
Schaffer & Emerson’s theory of
the development of attachment
• Asocial stage
– 0 to 6 weeks
– Babies respond to inanimate
objects and humans in similar
ways.
– Behaviour is not directed at
anything or anybody in particular.
13
Schaffer & Emerson’s theory of
the development of attachment
• Indiscriminate attachments
– 6 weeks to 7 months
– Happiest when receiving
attention - show sociability
– Not directed at any one person
– Any one will do!
14
Schaffer & Emerson’s theory of
the development of attachment
• Specific attachments
– 7 to 11 months
– Attachment to 1 person - stranger
anxiety & separation protest
– 65% specific attachment at 7
mths
– 87% multiple attachments by 18
mths
15
Evidence for:
• The stages appear to be correct
– If you leave a child in a nursery before 7 months
they show little distress
• Infants do display separation protest and
stranger anxiety
– If you leave it until 9 months they will show severe
separation protest
16
Evidence against:
• Babies may not be asocial
– 2/3 of babies only 2 days old preferred
mother’s face to the face of a stranger.
• Skin-to-skin hypothesis
• Hormones released by mother and infant
at or soon after birth help bonding,
separation of mum and baby may make
bonding more difficult.
17
The strange situation measures
three key indicators of attachment:
• Separation Protest
• Stranger Anxiety
• Reunion Behaviour
18
Secure attachment
• A strong bond between infant
and carer.
• Distress at separation but
easily comforted upon
reunion.
• Child has a positive working
model of relationships.
19
Insecure attachment
• Weaker attachment bond.
• Severe separation distress,
lack of stranger anxiety, and
avoidant or resistant
reactions on reunion.
• Child has negative working
model of him/herself and
others.
20
Secure Attachment - Type B
70%
Frequency?
Stranger
Yes
Anxiety?
Separation
Yes
Protest?
Pleasure
Yes at
Reunion?
Yes
Explores?
Carer
Yes
Secure
Base?
21
Insecure Avoidant - Type A
20%
Frequency?
Stranger
Yes
Anxiety?
Separation
No
Protest?
Pleasure
No at
Reunion?
Yes
Explores?
Carer
No
Secure
Base?
22
Insecure Resistant - Type C
10%
Frequency?
Stranger
Yes
Anxiety?
Separation
Yes
Protest?
Yes/
Pleasure at
No
Reunion?
No
Explores?
Carer
No
Secure
Base?
23
Disorganised Attachment - Type D
Some
infants
cannot
be
Why
Added?
classified
Inconsistent
Stranger
Anxiety?
Inconsistent
Separation
Protest?
Inconsistent
Explores?
Inconsistent
Pleasure at
Reunion?
Carer
Inconsistent
Secure
Base?
24
AO1 Questions
Outline two types of attachment (3 + 3)
One type of
attachment
is secure
attachment.
State
It is a strong
contented bond
between the
infant and
caregiver.
Explain
Securely attached
children use the carer
as a safe base and
show distress on
separation and
pleasure at reunion
Example
25
Reliability
• What is it?
• Test - Retest
– procedure is repeated at different ages to see
f the infant is classified in the same way.
• Research evidence
– First assessment 18month
– Repeat 6 years
– Secure 100% consistency.
– Avoidant 75% consistency.
26
Validity
• What is it?
• Criterion Validity
– Does it measure what it says it does?
• Research evidence
– Children classed as secure age 2
– Follow up late childhood
– Popular, high self esteem, less aggression,
social leaders.
• But Correlational – why is this a problem?
27
Definition of Cross-cultural
variations
• Behaviour, attitudes, norms,
and values differ across
cultures. This affects
childrearing styles and beliefs
about which qualities should
be nurtured. This in turn may
affect attachment type.
28
Results of Van IJzendoorn et al
70
60
50
%
40
USA
West Germany
Israel
Japan
30
20
10
0
Secure
Avoidant Resistant
Type
29
Evaluation
• Universality in attachments.
– the same characteristics underpin infantcaregiver interactions across cultures.
• Variation within greater than between
– 1.5 times. Does this make the measure invalid.
• Imposed Etic?
– measure is ethnocentric – based upon
western childrearing ideals.
30
The Psychodynamic Approach
• ‘Cupboard-love’: Libidinal desires are
satisfied.
– Oral stage – pleasure mouth
– attach to mum as she provides food
– Suckling - pleasureable
• Prototype for future relationships.
– secure child can give and receive love
– insecure child may orally fixate to
compensate for poor relationships
31
Evaluation
• Harlow’s(1959) research contradicts
‘cupboard love’.
32
33
Evaluation
• Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) research
suggests that 40% of infants do not
attach to the primary caregiver.
– responsiveness and stimulation were more
important factors in attachment.
34
35
Learning Theory
• Classical Conditioning
• UCS Food leads to UCR Pleasure
• UCS Food paired with CS Mother leads to UCR
•
Pleasure
CS Mother leads to CS Pleasure
36
Learning Theory
• Operant Conditioning
– mother is a source of positive reinforcement
– she is a secondary reinforcer as she is
associated with food, warmth, security and
attention.
37
Evaluation
• Also contradicted by Harlow’s
research and Schaffer and Emerson.
• Reductionist
– oversimplified only accounts for one factor –
learning
– Ignores nature or genes
– We may be genetically programmed to
attach.
38
Monotropy
• Promotes safety and survival
– Influenced by Darwin
• Innate
– Babies respond to human faces very
early
• Internal Working Model
– psychodynamic theory
– irreversible
39
• Monotropy
– primary attachment is special
• Psychological ‘stay-close’
mechanism
– maintain proximity
– invisible string
• Attachment is reciprocal
– infant has social releasers
– carer is ‘programmed to respond’
40
Evaluation
• Theory has positive applications
– children should be adopted before they are 3
– stimulated Ainsworth’s research.
• IWM deterministic
– peers may also influence behaviour.
• Attachment may not be monotropic
– Children clearly have multiple attachments – mum,
dad, granny, daycare etc.
• Evolutionary theory is post hoc.
– inferred afterwards
– unfalsifiable
41
Deprivation
• Separation leading to
bond disruption. Leads
to long term emotional
problems. (Affectionless
Psychopathy) Once
broken bond cannot be
remade.
42
Privation
• Lack of an appropriate
attachment figure. More
likely to cause permanent
emotional damage or
“affectionless
psychopathy”.
43
The Maternal Deprivation
Hypothesis
• Emotional care is important for mental
•
•
•
development, as important as good
standard of physical care.
Children need a warm and continuous
relationship with the mother or mother
substitute
Frequent or prolonged separations
disrupt continuity and lead to emotional
disturbance – affectionless psychopathy
IF it happens before 21/2 and there is no
substitute mother-person available.
44
Evaluation
• Positive impact - mothers stay with children in
•
•
•
hospital, fostering rather than children’s homes.
Deprivation may be indistinguishable from
privation. Parents who die or are absent may
mean that the child never forms and attachment
Maladjustment may not just be caused by
deprivation there could be a third factor eg
social conditions
Post-war politics – Mums go back home Dads
need the jobs
45
Hodges & Tizard Summary
• Effects reversible criticism of Bowlby
– children attached to foster parents despite
negative working models and being outside
the critical period.
• Problems with peers supports Bowlby
– perhaps new attachment cannot be
generalised if outside critical period
• Harris’ Groups Socialisation Theory
contradicts internal working model
– Peer relationships become more important
with age.
46
Positive and Negative Effects
• How might day care improve social
development? Why?
• How might it negatively affect social
development? Why?
• How might day care improve cognitive
development? Why?
• How might it negatively affect cognitive
development? Why?
47
Social development
• Development of social competence
including social skills, ability to relate
and empathise with others, and
formation of close and meaningful
relationships. Determined by an
interaction of biological
predisposition and the environment.
48
Cognitive development
• Development of mental processes
including thought, reasoning and
memory. IQ tests and school
performance are used to measure
cognitive development. Determined
by an interaction of biological
predisposition and the
environment.
49
Individual Differences include:
• attachment type
– Insecure benefit, secure children suffer.
• quality of daycare & maternal sensitivity
– Children in poor quality daycare who had low
sensitivity parents more likely to be insecure
• level of stimulation at home
– daycare can compensate for low stimulation
at home
50