Life’s Organization
Unit 2
Yes, it is time to move to your second
divider labeled Unit 2
What makes something alive?
 To
be considered alive, an organism
(living thing) must have certain
characteristics.
1. Be made up of Cells
 Living
things (Organisms) are made up of
small, contained units called cells.
 Cells are the smallest unit of an organism.
 Organisms can be unicellular or consist of one
cell. (We’ve seen these in the pond water lab)
 Many living things are multicellular which
means many cells. Plants and most animals
are multicellular.
2. Living Things (Organisms)
Reproduce
 All
organisms produce new organisms through
the process of reproduction.
 There are two types of reproduction sexual and
asexual.
 Sexual
reproduction involves two different
parents that each provide a
cell (gamete) to produce
an offspring
 Asexual
reproduction involves one
parent. Usually the offspring splits off from
its parents. For example a cell splitting in
two. The offspring has the exact same
genetics as its parent.
3. Organisms are put together based
on their Genetic Code
 All
organisms are based on a universal genetic
code know as deoxyribonucleic acid also known
as DNA.
 In asexual reproduction, the offspring have
the same exact genetic code. The offspring are
clones of their parent.
 In sexual reproduction, offspring share some
characteristics of each parent. Offspring DNA is
50% from Mother and 50% from Father.
4. Organisms Grow & Develop
 All
living things grow at some part of their lives.
Growth is an increase in cell size or cell
number
 Growth takes place when a fertilized egg cell
divides many times
 Cell differentiation results in some cells
becoming specialized as bone cells, liver cells
or brain cells
 Development can also include periods of rapid
change – in humans aka puberty!!
5. Organisms need materials &
energy
 Living
Things need food for energy to grow,
reproduce and survive.
 Metabolism involves the chemical reactions
that organisms do to break down and build
materials needed to carry out life functions and
stay alive.
 The way living things get their energy varies.
Autotrophs/Producers make their own food
using the sun’s energy through photosynthesis.
 Heterotrophs/Consumers
get their energy
by eating other organisms.
Herbivores -eat primarily plants
Carnivores eat primarily meat
Omnivores eat both meat & plants
Decomposers- are mostly fungi and bacterial
that consume dead plants & animals
6. Organisms Respond to their
Environment
 Living
things are aware of and respond to
stimuli in the environment.
 A stimulus is a signal that an organism
responds to.
 External stimuli comes from the environment
such as changes in light, temperature, noise,
etc.
 Internal stimuli comes from inside the
organisms body. When your body’s blood
glucose (sugar) falls too low, you become
hungry.
7. Living Things maintain an Internal
Balance
 Homeostasis-
involves processes that an
organism uses to keep internal conditions (like
temperature & water constant) stable &
constant to survive.
 Homeostasis involves internal feedback
systems in our bodies. If our body temperature
gets too hot when exercising, our skin sweats to
help to cool us down. If our temperature gets
too cold we shiver to produce heat in our body.
8. Living things excrete waste
products
 Excretion
is the process by which waste
products of metabolism and other nonuseful materials are eliminated from an
organism
 Humans excrete urine which is
concentrated in the kidneys
 Fish and water organisms
excrete Ammonia which is highly toxic and
highly soluble in water
9. Some living things can move

Movement- The ability to move is called
locomotion. This is beneficial to an organism in
allowing it to escape predators, move to where there
is more food or to find mates.
Cilia
Flagella
Setae or hairs on an
earthworm
Water Flea AKA Daphne
10. Living Things conduct
Synthesis

Synthesis-the process that organisms take
simple building blocks and make something
more complex
 Plants synthesize glucose using
sunlight, CO2 and water.
11. Living Things can Evolve
 Over
time organisms change in response to
changes in the environment. The change may
be gradual and take many generations.
 Evolution
is the change in a
species over time responding
to changes in their environment.
Structural Organization of
Organisms

Organism-an individual with the ability to carry
out the activities of life

Organ Systems-A group of organs that work
together to perform a major task (i.e. digestive
systems, reproductive system)

Organs-a Structure made up of similar tissues
that work together to perform a task. Often part
of a larger system. (i.e. stomach, eyes, kidneys

Tissues- A group of similar cells that work
together to perform the same function (i.e.
muscle tissue)

Cells-Smallest living unit of an organism
Cell Theory –Developed during the mid 17th century
was made possible by advances in microscopy.
Cells theory states that:
 Cells
are the basic unit of structure in
every living thing.
 New cells are formed from other existing
cells
 The cell is a fundamental unit of structure,
function and organization in all living
organisms.
 Many
scientist do not classify viruses
with living things

Viruses are not made of cells
 Viruses are made
of proteins and genetic
material
HIV Virus
 Viruses
cannot independently carry out all
of the processes of life (can’t function
outside of a living cell)
 Virus must invade the cell of a living
organism to reproduce
 Some viruses are pathogens. Pathogens
are anything that causes disease.
 Virus also do not respond to antibiotics
 Different Viruses cause HIV, influenza,
warts and many other diseases
There are two types of cells
Prokaryote- cells that don’t have a nucleus
or many organelles
 Came first-were the first examples of life
 Simple compared to eukaryote cells
 Prokaryotes-Think of bacteria
which can be killed using
antibiotics.
1.
Eukaryotes- are more complex and are
what you are used to seeing and
studying.
 Have a nucleus that contains the
genetic information
 Have many specialized organelles
2.
EUKARYOTE CELLS and CELL
ORGANELLES
Cytoplasm refers to the jelly-like material
with organelles in it. AKA Cytosol
If the organelles were removed, the soluble
part that would be left is called the cytosol.
It consists mainly of water with dissolved
substances such as amino acids in it.
Nucleus- The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It
is the largest organelle in the cell and it contains the
DNA of the cell.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all the information
for cells to live, perform their functions and reproduce.
Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the
nucleolus. The nucleolus is responsible for making
ribosomes.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria -Their main function is the
conversion of the potential energy of food
molecules into ATP.
 There are more mitochondria in cells that have to
perform lots of work (leg muscle cells, heart muscle
cells etc).
 Mitochondria have their own DNA
 Mitochondrial DNA- You have an exact copy of
your mother’s mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondria have:
 an outer membrane that encloses the entire structure
 an inner membrane that encloses a fluid-filled matrix
 between the two is the intermembrane space
Cellular Respiration takes place in the Mitochondria
All living cells do cellular respiration
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- The rough endoplasmic reticulum
is where most protein synthesis occurs in the cell. There are two
types of ER.
 Rough ER- When ribosomes are attached it
 Smooth ER when there are no ribosomes attached.
Golgi complex- It is organelle in the cell that is
responsible for sorting and correctly shipping
the proteins produced in the ER.
Just like our postal packages which should
have a correct shipping address, the proteins
produced in the ER, should be correctly sent to
their respective address.
In the cell, shipping and sorting done by the
Golgi complex. It is a very important step in
protein synthesis (Making of Proteins).
.
Ribosomes- Organelles that help in the synthesis of
proteins.
 Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but
most are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of
the plasma membrane
The Fluid-mosaic model- membrane is seen as a
bilayer of phospholipids in which protein molecules
are embedded.
Channels/pores- A channel in the cell's plasma
membrane. This channel is made up of certain
proteins whose function is to control the movement of
food and water into the cell. These channels are made
up of certain proteins.
Vesicles- This term literally means "small vessel". This
organelle helps store and transport products produced
by the cell.
The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like
our mail and Federal Express trucks. Some vesicles
deliver materials to parts of the cell and others transport
materials outside the cell in a process called exocytosis
Lysosomes function as the cell's recycling
compartment.
Lysosomes receive cellular and proteins and lipids
that need digesting through the process of
endocytosis. The metabolites that result are
transported either by vesicles or directly across the
membrane.
CENTROSOME
A Centrosome is found in the nucleus
and is made of a pair of small
Organelles called the centrioles.
Centrioles are made up of a ring
of nine groups of microtubules.
During animal cell division, the centrosome divides and the centrioles
replicate (make new copies). The two centrosomes move to opposite ends
of the nucleus, and from each centrosome, microtubules grow into a
"spindle" which is responsible for separating replicated chromosomes
into the two daughter cells.
Plant cells have centrosomes that function much like animal cell
centrosomes. However, unlike centrosomes in animal cells, Plant cells do
not have centrioles.
Vacuoles- can be used to
store water, waste or food
inside of a plant cell.
• Vacuoles and vesicles are
storage organelles in
cells. Vacuoles are larger
than vesicles. Either
structure may store water,
waste products, food, and
other cellular materials.
In plant cells, the vacuole may take up most of
the cell's volume.
When a plant wilts it means that the vacuole has lost enough water so the
“water balloon” deflates and no longer helps the cell wall hold the plant
upright.
Chloroplast- The cell organelle in
which photosynthesis takes place.
In this organelle the light energy of
the sun is converted into chemical energy.
- Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells not
animal cells.
-Chloroplasts contain tiny green pigments called
chlorophylls
- Chlorophylls are responsible for trapping the
light energy from the sun.
The chemical energy that is produced by
chloroplasts is finally used to make glucose and
carbohydrates like starch
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
GLUCOSE
Organic (comes from something alive)
molecules contain Carbon and Hydrogen
Cell Wall- One of the most important distinguishing features of plant cells is
the presence of a cell wall
• The cell wall protects the cellular contents gives rigidity to the plant
structure
• The cell wall is a structure of great tensile strength, the cell wall is formed
from fibrils of cellulose molecules
• Animal cells do not have
a Cell wall.
Photosynthesis is the
Cellular Respiration
reverse reaction of
Chemical Composition
 All
living things are made up of four
main elements
CarbonC
HydrogenH
OxygenO
 Many other elements in smaller amounts
such as Iron (in hemoglobin), N, Calcium
(bones/teeth)
Organic substances come from living things that
are alive and also contain C and H
 Identify
which substances are organic:
-H20
inorganic does not contain C and H
-C6H12O6 (Glucose)
organic does contain both C and H
-CH4 (Methane-Natural Gas)
organic does contain both C and H
Organic Molecules

Structure molecules such as the cell wall
 Enzymes-proteins
that speed up chemical
reactions such as digestion
 DNA,
Proteins, and Fats
 Carbohydrates
(C6H12O6)
such as glucose
Inorganic compounds DO NOT
contain both CARBON and HYDROGEN






Salts –NaCl (Sodium Chloride- table salt)
Minerals (Fe, N, P, K etc.)
Most acids and bases
O2-Oxygen
CO2-Carbon Dioxide
H2O-Water
CLASSIFICATION

Biologists found it necessary to classify living
organisms in a logical way.

Linnaeus came up with a system in the 1700s.
-He used binomial nomenclature
which means every organism
can be identified by two namesGenus and Species
Taxonomy-the science of classifying
organisms according to their shared traits
Phylogeny-the study of evolutionary history
and relationships
Tree of life
 The
concept of a tree of life is that a tree
branches illustrate the idea that all life on
earth is related
 Carl
Woese, introduced the three-domain
system in 1990
 The Tree of Life consists of three domains:
- 1. Domain Archaea - (prokaryotes) are
a group of single-celled
microorganisms.
-live in most extreme environments
such as hot springs and brine pools
(salt)
=
2. Domain Bacteria (prokaryotes) –most are
unicellular

Under a microscope, they look like balls, rods or
spirals.
 They are so small that a line of 1,000 could fit
across a pencil eraser.
 Most bacteria won't hurt you - less than 1 percent
makes people sick.
Many bacteria are helpful
 Some
bacteria help to digest food, destroy
disease-causing cells and give the body
needed vitamins (vitamin K and B-12).
 Bacteria
are also used in making healthy
foods like yogurt and cheese.
Bacteria that are Pathogens

Examples of bacteria that cause infections
include:
-Streptococus -(strep throat)
-Staphylcocus-(staph infections)
-E. Coli. -(food poisoning-wash your hands )
 Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight
bacterial infections
 If a virus is making you sick, taking antibiotics
may do more harm than good
3. Domain Eukarya (eukaryotes)
 The
presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes
their name, which comes from the Greek ευ
(eu, "good") and κάρυον (karyon, "nut" or
"kernel").
 Group of organisms that share a common
ancestor
Mneumonic that I learned:
Did King Philip Come
Over From Germany
Saturday
Mnemonics
Mnemonic
Zoology term
King
Kingdom
Penguins
Phylum
Congregate
Class
On
Order
Frozen
Family
Ground
Genus
Sometimes
Species
Current Classification of living
organisms is based on:
 Similarities
in structure
 Evolutionary relationships
 Biochemical similarities (similar enzymes)
 Genetic similarities-(DNA and RNA
patterns)
 Patterns
 Fossil
in Embryological development
Evidence
Six Kingdoms
SIX KINGDOMS
 1.
Kingdom Eubacteria- Bacteria
 2.
Kingdom Archaebacteria-live in most
extreme environments such as hot
springs and brine pools (salt)
Ameba
Single cell
algae
3. Kingdom PROTISTA

Protista-very diverse Kingdom that lives in water

Some protists are more like plants or fungi and
others more like animals.

Some move (cilia, flagella, pseudopodia); others
don't

Some are autotrophic; others are heterotrophic

Other examples - diatoms and
paramecium
Euglena-chloroplasts
but no cell wall
4. Kingdom Fungi- most are decomposers
 Decomposers
feed on dead and decaying
material. (Saprophytes)
 Examples: are mushrooms, bracken
fungus on trees and yeast
5. Plantae- The plants
 Plants
are Autotrophs which means they
can make their own food
 Autotrophs make their own food through the
process of photosynthesis.
 All plants are Multicellular.
 Green algae do photosynthesis
but are now grouped with the
protists
6. Animalia-Animals
 All
animals are multicellular
 All animals are heterotrophs
 Heterotrophs eat other plants and animals.
(AKA Consumers)
 Heterotrophs cannot make their own food.
 Animal cells do not contain a cell wall or
have chloroplasts
Genus and Species






Two Word naming system called binomial
nomenclature
Names are in Latin and used by all the scientists in
the world
AKA- The Scientific Name of an organism
Every species in the world can be identified by its
Genus and Species name.
Genus and Species are written in Italics with the
Genus capitalized
What is the scientific name for humans?
Homo sapiens

Domestic Dog Grey Wolf-
Canus familiaris
Canus lupus
They both have the same Genus.
What does that mean?
 They are very closely related
 If you are writing it by hand you underline the
Genus and Species
Common Name
Scientific Name
Beaver
Castor candadensis
White tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus
Common Name: Right Whale
Scientific Name: Eubalaena glacialis
Description: The Right whale is a slow swimmer and
has a gentle nature. This whale reaches about 50 feet
in length and weighs about 70 tons.
Habitat: Right Whales are distributed around the
North Atlantic and the North Pacific Oceans.
Common Names VS Scientific Names

Many organisms have different common names
and scientist have to know the exact species
 Skunks have different common names in
different parts of our country including civet cat
and polecat

Both are called skunks, but only the one on the left is
Mephitis mephitis.
 The one on the right is Spilogale gracilis
FROM ATOMS TO CELLS
A. Everything on Earth is made of Matter


Matter has mass and takes up space


Matter is made up of ATOMS


Atoms are too small to be seen with an ordinary
microscope (100 million in a row would make
a row 1 cm wide)
 The
smallest particle of an element that
maintains its characteristics is an atom
 Atoms
combine with other atoms to form
molecules using chemical bonds
Research on the Atom in the 1900s
Ernest Rutherford studied the nucleus and
determined:
 The nucleus was very dense and
contained protons and neutrons
 Electrons are distributed in the mostly
empty space surrounding the nucleus
Niels Bohr studied the electrons and
determined:

Electrons moved around the nucleus in orbits

Electrons in the inner shell (closest to the nucleus) have
the least energy
Current understanding of atoms

Protons and Neutrons are about the same mass

Protons have + charge and Neutrons carry no
charge (think neutral)

Electrons are negatively charged and are in
constant motion in an area called the cloud

Atoms contain equal numbers of electron and
protons, atoms are neutral in charge
Cloud Model of the Atom
The electron has a probability of being anywhere
at any time and the cloud represents where it
most likely is
Chemical Compounds
 Most
elements are found combined with other
elements in compounds
 Compound-is a substance formed by chemical
combination of two or more elements in
definite proportions
 Water is an important inorganic compoundcontains 2 atoms of Hydrogen
for every atom of Oxygen
 Molecule-the

smallest unit of a compound.
Chemical Bonds


Ionic Bonds- form when one or more
electrons are transferred from one atom to
another. These pos or neg charged atoms are
called ions
Covalent Bonds- form when electrons are
shared between atoms
Major Elemental Components of the
human body








Oxygen-64%
Carbon-18%
Hydrogen 10%
Nitrogen-3%
Phosphorus-1%
Sulfur-.75%
Trace Elements 3.25%
About 70% of the Human Body is
composed of water
Organic Compounds-contain the
elements Carbon and Hydrogen
 1.
Carbohydrates- Simple Sugars have six
carbon atoms bonded together
One sugar subunit is called a monosaccharide
Glucose- C6H12O6
Fructose- C6H12O12
Carbohydrates-Disaccharides
Two sugar subunits is called a disaccharide
Lactose-milk sugar
Sucrose-C12H22O11 Table Sugar
Many sugar subunits are called a
polysaccharides
Glycogen-is stored in the liver and
later used by the mitochondria in
muscle cells to provide energy (ATP) to
do work or exercise
Glucagon is a hormone, secreted by the pancreas, that
raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of
insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels
Catabolism is the set of pathways that break down molecules
(such as Glycogen) into smaller units (such as Glucose) and
release energy
Energy Storage in Cells

Starch-plants store energy as Starch.
-Potato starch
-Corn starch
 Starch is a very large molecule and can’t pass
through cells membranes

Starch must be broken down into smaller glucose
molecules so that if can move across membranes
within an organism.
 Glycogen-Animals such as humans store energy in
the liver to later be used by muscle cells to do
work or exercise
2. Lipids- oils and fats

High energy bonds used for long term energy
storage

Saturated Fats-almost every Carbon position is
bonded to a Hydrogen Atom

Saturated Fats are solids at room temperature

SATURATED FATS
CAUSE HEART DISEASE
2. Lipids-oils and fats

Unsaturated Fats- are usually a liquid at room
temperature. Some Carbon positions are not
bonded to a Hydrogen Atoms
 Trans fat is considered by some doctors to be
the worst of them all because of its doublebarreled impact on your cholesterol levels.
-trans fat —both raises your "bad" (LDL)
cholesterol and lowers your "good" (HDL)
cholesterol
-Restaurants like using trans fats to fry their
foods because they’re easy to use,
inexpensive to produce and last a long time
Polyunsaturated Fats
 Polyunsaturated-Many
Carbon positions
are not bonded to Hydrogen Atoms
 Polyunsaturated vegetable oils are the
safest fats
 Canola oil, flax seed oil, soy oil, safflower
oil and sunflower oil are healthier choices
3. Proteins
 Amino
Acids are the building blocks of
proteins
 20 different types of Amino Acids
 Amino Acids put together in thousands of
various combinations
 DNA provides the instructions for putting
the amino acid sequences together


Proteins are the structural blocks of cellular
systems and are formed by joining of amino
acids by peptide bonds (polymerization) .
Proteins are made of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen and Oxygen
 Each amino acid in turn consists of an amino
group, a carboxyl group and side chains.
4. Nucleic Acids Nucleic
Acids- Stores the genetic
information of the cell and organism
 DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 RNA
(Ribonucleic Acid)
Diffusion

Diffusion occurs when a system is not at equilibrium
(concentration same on both side of membrane)

Diffusion is the movement from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.

Diffusion can occur through a cell membrane.

The cell membrane allows small molecules like
water (H2O), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
and others to pass through easily. It is said to be
permeable to these molecules.

If a cell is floating in a water solution (like the ocean)
that has some oxygen dissolved in it, the oxygen
molecules will move into the cell.
 If the cell uses some of the oxygen as it comes into the
cell, more oxygen will move into the cell than out of the
cell.

Same process applies
to O2 moving into a
Muscle cell from the
blood


If the starch (or some other large molecule like a
protein) is in a cell, the water moves into the cell
faster than it leaves, and the cell swells.
Osmosis-is special type of
Diffusion that involves the
movement of water across
a membrane
What’s going on when you
eat salty popcorn?
What is happening to the cells that line your mouth?
Does that have anything to do with Diffusion/Osmosis?
Salt makes a person thirsty because it first dries out the
tongue and mouth. After the digestion process has started,
salt moves from the stomach and into the small intestine.
The salt is then absorbed into the wall of the small
intestine, and into the blood stream.

Concentration Gradient- The difference in
concentration between the cell and its environment is
called the concentration Gradient.

Passive Transport- Diffusion of substances through
the membrane without the use of energy. Movement is
from an area of higher concentration to lower
concentration.

Active Transport- Requires energy and can move
substances against the concentration gradient from an
area of low concentration to and area of high
concentration. Carrier proteins in the membrane help in
the transport of materials. (show You tube video)
Homeostasis
Glossary

Homeostasis is all about keeping conditions at the right levels to
support life. You need to be comfortable with the related terms
 Maintain – keep up at the proper level (ie. Body temp)
 Constant or Steady State – the same.
 Internal – inside the body.
 Environment – surroundings of the body.
 Dynamic Equilibrium- example of a system in a steady state.
May change a small amount up or down.
 Feedback- A control system that allows for feedback and selfcorrection to adjust according to differences between the actual
level and the desired level.
What is Homeostasis?
 Body
cells work best if they have the
correct



Temperature
Water levels
Glucose concentration
 Your
body has mechanisms to keep the
cells in a constant environment.
What is Homeostasis?
The maintenance of a
constant environment in the
body is called Homeostasis
Controlling body temperature
 All
mammals maintain a constant body
temperature.
 Human beings have a body temperature of
about 37ºC.


E.g. If your body is in a hot environment your
body temperature is 37ºC
If your body is in a cold environment your
body temperature is still 37ºC
Controlling body temperature
 Animals
with a large surface area
compared to their volume will lose heat
faster than animals with a small surface
area.
Volume = _______
Volume = _______
Surface area = ______
Surface area = ______
Volume : Surface area
ratio = ___________
Volume : Surface area
ratio = ___________
Controlling body temperature
Volume : Surface
area ratio = 1:6
For every 1 unit
of heat made,
heat is lost out
of 6 sides
Volume : Surface
area ratio = 1:5
For every 1 unit
of heat made,
heat is lost out
of 5 sides
Controlling body temperature
Volume : Surface
area ratio = 1:6
Volume : Surface
area ratio = 1:5
The bigger the
Volume : Surface Area ratio
is, the faster heat will be lost.
What mechanisms are there to cool
the body down?
1.
Sweating

When your body is hot, sweat glands are
stimulated to release sweat.
The liquid sweat turns into a gas (it
evaporates)
To do this, it needs heat.
It gets that heat from your skin.
As your skin loses heat, it cools down.




Sweating
The
skin
What mechanisms are there to cool the
body down?
2.




Vasodilation
Your blood carries most of the heat energy
around your body.
There are capillaries underneath your skin that
can be filled with blood if you get too hot.
This brings the blood closer to the surface of
the skin so more heat can be lost.
This is why you look red when you are hot!
This means more heat is lost from the surface of the skin
If the temperature
rises, the blood
vessel dilates (gets
bigger).
What mechanisms are there to warm
the body up?
1.
Vasoconstriction

This is the opposite of vasodilation
The capillaries underneath your skin get
constricted (shut off).
This takes the blood away from the
surface of the skin so less heat can be
lost.


This means less heat is lost from the surface of the skin
If the temperature
falls, the blood
vessel constricts
(gets shut off).
What mechanisms are there to warm
the body up?

Piloerection

This is when the hairs on your skin
“stand up” .
It is sometimes called “goose bumps” or
“chicken skin”!
The hairs trap a layer of air next to the
skin which is then warmed by the body
heat
The air becomes an insulating layer.



Controlling Glucose levels
 Your
cells also need an exact level of
glucose in the blood.
 Excess glucose gets turned into glycogen
in the liver
 This is regulated by 2 hormones
(chemicals) from the pancreas called:
Insulin
Glucagon
Shivering
 When
you shiver, the muscles are
producing heat
 Muscles use ATP produced in the
Mitochondria which releases
CO2 and heat.
Glycogen
If there is too
much glucose in
the blood,
Insulin converts
some of it to
glycogen
Glucose in the blood
Glycogen
If there is not
enough glucose
in the blood,
Glucagon
converts some
glycogen into
glucose.
Glucose in the blood
Diabetes
 Some
people do not produce enough
insulin.
 When they eat food, the glucose levels in
their blood cannot be reduced.
 This condition is known as DIABETES.
 Diabetics sometimes have to inject insulin
into their blood. They have to be careful of
their diet.
Glucose
Concentration
Glucose levels rise
after a meal.
Insulin is produced
and glucose levels
fall to normal
again.
Normal
Meal eaten
Time
Glucose
Concentration
Glucose levels rise
after a meal.
Diabetic
Insulin is not
produced so
glucose levels stay
high
Meal eaten
Time
Glycogen
. But there is no
Glucose
The glucose in the
insulin to convert
concentration
rises
blood increases.
into glycogen
toitdangerous
levels.
Glucose in the blood
Controlling water levels
 The
control of water levels is carried out
by the KIDNEYS.
 It is closely linked to the excretion of urea.
 Urea is a waste product that is made when
the LIVER breaks down proteins that are
not needed by the body.
 Urea contains the element Nitrogen.
The kidneys
The kidneys “clean” the blood of waste
products and control how much water
is kept in the body. The waste
products and water make up urine
which is excreted via the ureter.
“Dirty” blood enters the kidney
through the renal artery. Then,
several things happen to clean the
blood...
1. Filtration
Blood enters the tubule area in
a capillary.
The capillary forms a small
“knot” near the kidney tubule.
The blood is filtered so all the
small particles go into the
tubule.
The capillary then carries on
to run next to the tubule.
The kidney tubule now contains
lots of blood components
including:
Glucose:
Ions:
Water:
Urea:
Draw in the blood components on
your kidney tubule on your notes.
Make your own key and symbols
2. Reabsorb sugar
The body needs to have sugar
in the blood for cells to use in
respiration. So all the sugar is
reabsorbed back into the
capillary.
2. Reabsorb sugar
The body needs to have sugar
in the blood for cells to use
during cellular respiration. So
all the sugar is reabsorbed
back into the capillary.
3. Reabsorb water
Water and ions are the next to
be absorbed. It depends on
how much is needed by the
body.
3. Reabsorb water
Water and ions are the next to
be absorbed. It depends on
how much is needed by the
body.
Reabsorbing water
If you have too
little water in your
blood, you will
produce very
concentrated urine.
If you have too
much water in your
blood, you will
produce very dilute
urine.
(very little water in
it)
(lots of water in it)
5. Excrete the waste
Everything that is left in the
kidney tubule is waste:
•All the urea
•Excess water
This waste is called urine. It is
excreted via the ureter and is
stored in the bladder.
Renal vein
The “clean” blood leaves the
kidney in the renal vein.
Ureter
Summary of urine production
 Urea
is a waste product made in the LIVER
 Water content of the body is controlled in
the KIDNEYS
 Urea, water and other waste makes up
URINE.
 Urine travels down the URETER and is
stored in the BLADDER
 Urine is excreted through the URETHRA.
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