Motivation
Instinct Theory: we
are motivated by our
inborn automated
behaviors.
 But instincts only
explain why we do a
small fraction of our
behaviors.

Drive Reduction Theory
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Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL
NEEDS.
Drive-Reduction Theory: a physiological need
creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that
motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Desire to maintain Homeostasis (tendency to
maintain a balanced or constant internal state)
Primary versus Secondary drives
Not only are we pushed by our “need to reduce
drives, we are also pulled by incentives – positive
or negative stimuli that lure or repel us.
Arousal Theory
We are motivated
to seek an optimum
level of arousal.
 Yerkes-Dodson Law
 High arousal is
helpful on easy
tasks
 Too much arousal is
harmful
Quality of performance

Easy task
Moderately
difficult task
Very difficult task
Degree of arousal
As level of arousal increases, quality
of performance decreases with task
difficulty
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow said
we are motivated by
needs, and all needs
are not created equal.
 We are driven to
satisfy the lower
level needs first.

Hunger
Hunger is both physiological and
psychological
Physiology of Hunger
Washburn’s
studies showed
hunger was
partially related to
the stomach.
 But those with
their stomachs
removed still feel
hunger.

Biological Needs: Hunger
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Biological needs are based mainly on
body tissue needs, such as need for
food, water, air, temperature
regulation, and pain avoidance.
Biological needs are complex because
they usually involve psychological needs
as well.
Food is necessary for survival, but it
could also mean much more than mere
survival.
–
For example: Food can symbolize the
closeness of the family.
Hunger Drive
 Hunger
is regulated by biological and
psychological factors.
 The mechanisms involved in the hunger
drive include:
– The mouth
– The stomach
– The hypothalamus
 The
act of chewing and swallowing provide
certain sensations that help satisfy the
hunger drive.
 The hunger drive is satisfied when the
body digests food and the nutrients enter
the bloodstream.
Hunger
The stomach – the growls and contractions of
an empty stomach are believed to contribute to
the hunger drive. (hunger pangs)
 The hypothalamus – the level of sugar in the
blood and the hypothalamus are key factors on
feelings of hunger.


Glucose – a form of sugar that
circulates in the blood and
provides the major source of
energy for body tissue. * Low
blood glucose levels cause
increases in hunger.
Hunger
When you have not eaten for a long while
(hungry), your blood sugar level drops.
 This drop in sugar levels is communicated to
the brain (to the hypothalamus), which is
involved in the regulation of body temperature
and various aspects of psychological motivation
and emotion.
 It has been found that the side of the
hypothalamus (or the lateral hypothalamus
(LH)) controls the “start eating” sensation.

– For example: If you electrically
stimulate the LH, you will become
hungry and want to eat food.
Hunger
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On the other hand, if the LH is lacerated,
cut off, or damaged, you would never feel
hungry again from a physical perspective
(and lose a lot of weight) OR you would
stop eating altogether and starve to death
if not force-fed.
The underside of the hypothalamus, called the
ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), is the part of
the brain that controls the “stop eating” sensation.
– For example: if this part of the
hypothalamus is damaged in any
way, you will eat and eat until you
are completely obese and die.
How does the hypothalamus work?
Two Theories
Leptin
 Leptin is a protein
produced by
bloated fat cells.
 Hypothalamus
senses rises in
leptin and will curb
eating and increase
activity.
 Can leptin
injections help me?
Set Point
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Hypothalamus acts like a
thermostat.
We are meant to be in a
certain weight range.
When we fall below
weight our body will
increase hunger and
decrease energy
expenditure (Basic
Metabolic Rate).
What happens if we go
above our set point?
Psychological Influences:
Externals: People whose eating is
triggered more by the presence/smell of
food or by the presence of other people
eating than internal factors.
 Internals: People who are motivated to
eat by internal cues, empty stomach, or
feelings of hunger.
 People eat when they are upset or
depressed. They have learned that eating
certain foods and amounts brings them a
sensation of relaxation/comfort.

Taste Preferences
Food taste better and we chew less
when we are hungry (beginning of a
meal).
Food tastes worse
and we chew more
when we are not
hungry (at the end
of the meal).
It’s weird; the better the food tastes, the
less time we leave it in our mouths.
Eating Disorders: Obesity
 One
in two American adults are obese.
 Obesity is defined as weighing more than 30
percent above one’s recommended weight.
 Obesity has both physical and social
consequences.
 Studies have shown that obese people are
more likely than non-obese people to come
down with illnesses such as heart disease,
diabetes, gout, respiratory problems, and
some cancers.
Causes of Obesity
Like with hunger drive, both biological and
psychological factors influence or contribute to
obesity.
 Nature vs. Nurture: some research suggests that
obesity is not hereditary.

– Example: obese parents may simply encourage their
children to overeat and eat fatty foods – social
learning.

And other research suggests that it is based on
heredity.
– Example: Adopted children more closely resemble
their biological parents, regardless of adoptive
parents.
Heredity & Obesity
A particular gene may cause them to not
receive the signal in the hypothalamus to stop
eating.
 Also, genes determine the number of fat cells a
person has.
 People with more fat cells feel hungry sooner
than people with fewer fat cells even if they
are the same weight.
 People metabolize food at different rates,
according to the amount of muscle and fat in
their bodies.
 Men tend to have less body fat than women.
Men tend to have more muscle than women.

Eating Disorders: Anorexia
Nervosa
 An
eating
disorder in which
a normal weight
person diets and
becomes
significantly
underweight, yet,
still feeling fat,
continues to
starve.
Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa
 An
eating disorder
characterized by
episodes of
overeating, usually
of high caloric
foods, followed by
vomiting, laxative
use, fasting, or
excessive exercise.
Sex Is Natural
► We
are all motivated to have sex.
► Without that motivation, none of us would
be here.
How do we (as scientists) find out about sex?
We ask!!!!
Kinsey’s Studies
►
►
►
►
Confidential interviews with
18,000 people (in early
1950’s).
Most men and half of all
women have premarital sex.
Almost all men and women
masturbate.
Women who had orgasms
while masturbating were more
likely to report having orgasms
after marriage.
Good Start- but major problems with his study- sampling, questions etc….
The Physiology of Sex
► In
the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia
Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex.
► 382 females and 312 males.
► Only people who were willing to have sex and
display orgasm in a lab environment.
► Filmed more than 10,000 sex cycles.
Results of M & J Study
The Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages)
1.
Excitement Phase: genitals become
engorged in blood (men and women) and
women will lubricate.
2. Plateau Phase: excitement peaks,
breathing, pulse increases, tip of penis may
exhibit seminal fluid, clitoris retractsorgasm feels imminent.
Results of M & J Study (Continued)
3.
Orgasm: muscle contractions all over the body,
women’s contractions actually help propel
sperm and position uterus to increase chances
of conception. Man and woman only aware of
rhythmic genital contractions.
4. Resolution Phase: everything slows down and
men enter a refractory period (which can last
from minutes to over a day) where he is
incapable of another orgasm.
Sex Drive
Increased production
of testosterone and
estrogen at puberty
is responsible for
physical
differentiation
► Increased secretion
of DHEA, primary
adrenal sex hormone,
is responsible for
sexual feelings
►
First sexual
attraction in
both sexes
Final maturation
of testes in males
Final maturation
of ovaries in females
Male Sex Drive
► Testosterone
maintains sex
drive in adult
males
 castration decreases
drive
 testosterone injections
or implantation to
medial preoptic area
restores drive
Female Sex Drive
►
Estrous cycle controls
drive in nonhuman
mammals
 removal of ovaries
abolishes drive, while
hormone injections
restore it
►
Also, lesions to
ventromedial area
abolish drive, while
injection or
implantation restores
drive
Early Effects of Testosterone
► Presence
of testosterone during critical period
will cause rudimentary genitals of fetus to
develop into male structures
► Testosterone acts in brain to promote
development of neural systems for male sex
drive and inhibit systems for female drive
► Absence causes development of female
structures
► Stressful events experienced by pregnant rats
reduce level of prenatal testosterone
The Psychology of Sex
► Only
some people are externals when it
comes to hunger- but we are all externals
when it comes to sex.
► Heiman 4 tape study.
► People can find sexually explicit images
either pleasing or disturbing- but they are
none the less biologically arousing.
Can External Sexual Stimuli have
adverse effects?
► Movies
of women being coerced or forced
into sex tend to increase the viewer’s
acceptance of the false idea that women can
enjoy it.
► Viewing X-Rated films can diminish people’s
satisfaction with their own partners.
Expectations change.
► After viewing attractive women or men on
TV- people judge their own partners as less
attractive.
Imagined Stimuli
► Images
inside our heads can also effect our
sexual motivation.
► Both dreams and daydreams can lead to
orgasm.
► But fantasies to not correspond to realityjust because a women fantasizes about a
man “taking her” does not mean she will
want it in reality!!!!
Adolescent Sexuality
Culture
•About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex- rates are higher in Western
Europe but lower in Arab or Asian countries.
Also change over time in the same culture: in 1900 3% of women reported having
sex by 18. Now that number is around half.
Only about 1/3 of sexually active male
teenagers use condoms- WHY?
►Ignorance
►Guilt
around sex
►No Communication
►Alcohol Use
►Mass Media norms
of unprotected
promiscuity
We have discussed the energizing of sexual
motivation but have yet to discuss its direction:
Sexual Orientation
► An
enduring sexual attraction toward
members of either one's own gender or
the other gender.
Percentage gay, how it feels, cities, brothers.
Human Sexual Orientation
► Orientation
is an early-emerging, ingrained
aspect of the self that probably does not change
► No consistent relationship between orientation
and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting,
abuse, sexual experience)
► Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to
be gay than if they were raised by heterosexual
parents.
► Controversial findings suggest a possible
relationship among prenatal stress, androgens,
and the development of brain systems that play a
role in sexual attraction
► Simon
The Brain
LeVay discovered that there is a cluster
of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in
heterosexual men than in heterosexual women
or homosexual men.
•However, the cluster could be socially
developed or some other biological factor.
Genetics
► If
one identical twin is homosexual, the
other twin has about a 50% chance of
being gay (about 20% for fraternal twins).
What does this mean?
Prenatal Environment
► Current
research seems to
point to the hormonal
levels in the prenatal
environment.
•We have been
able to create
lesbian sheep!!!
What are the ethical
issues here?
Achievement Motivation

A desire for significant
accomplishments; for
mastery of things, people,
or ideas; for attaining a
high standard
Achievement Motivation

People who have
LOW achievement
motivation prefer
very easy or very
difficult tasks.
•Failure is unlikely
to be embarrassing

People with HIGH
achievement
motivation prefer
moderately difficult
tasks.
•Success is
attainable yet
attributable to their
skill and effort.
Achievement Motivation
Does high achievement
motivation mean success
in life?
Why are some people highly
motivated, while others are
not?
There are emotional and cognitive roots.
 Children learn to associate achievement
with positive emotions.
Children learn to associate achievement
with expectations (intrinsic or extrinsic).
 These structures are usually set in place by
parents and teachers.
 Nature OR Nurture?

Achievement Motivation
What motivates us to work?
(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)

Intrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get
internally, such as
enjoyment or
satisfaction.


Extrinsic Motivators
Reward that we get for
accomplishments from
outside ourselves (grades
or money or etc..)
Work great in the short
run.
Cultivating Intrinsic Motivation
Industrial and Organizational
Psychology

A subfield in psychology that focuses on
how to help organizations recruit, select,
compensate and train employees.
•The object is to utilize the human factor in
an organization to increase productivity.
Leadership Style
Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership
that sets standards and organizes work.
Social Leadership: group oriented
leadership that builds teamwork, mediates
conflict and offers support .
Leadership Perspective:
Theory X

Assumes that workers
are basically lazy,
error-prone, and
extrinsically
motivated by money.
•Must never be trusted
and always be
watched.
•To work more, they must be given money.
Leadership Perspective:
Theory Y

Assumes that, given
challenge and
freedom, workers
are motivated to
achieve self-esteem
and to demonstrate
their competence
and creativity.
When Motives Conflict
four types of motivational conflicts


Approach-approach conflict – occurs when you must
choose between two desirable outcomes. Either go to the
movies with your best friend or dinner with that really
cute girl/boy from class. Both choices appeal to you.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict – occurs when you must
choose between two unattractive outcomes. Your parents
tell you to clean your room or rake leaves - you desire
neither one.
When Motives Conflict


Approach-avoidance conflict – exists when ONE event or
goal has both attractive and unattractive features. Let’s
say you love cotton candy but the sugar gives you gas.
Cotton candy has both attractive (tastes gooood) and
unattractive (farting) features.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts – here you must
chose between two or more things, each of which has both
desirable and undesirable features. The best example is
choosing a college that you want to go to.