Educational Theory, Research and Enquiry I
Ines De Almeida 458945
04 March 2014
Positivism: Short Essay 1
Positivism is a term that is no longer used but the influences it has brought to philosophy are
immense. This theory of thought will be explained in great detail in order to have an
understanding of positivism and how it became popular. The most successful school of
thought that emerged from positivism is behaviourism. In both schools of thought humans
are studied as mechanical organisms. The discussion will elaborate on why humans are
viewed in this state as well as the implication of this particular view. The behaviourists
approach is often used in a classroom environment. The discussion will highlight why
behaviourism is used in the classroom and the various consequences it may bring.
“Identified as receiving the label “positivism” has died but others are still alive in one form or
another” (Phillips,D.C. 1983,p6) This school of thought is non-existent in the present
philosophy but its ideas have stemmed into other schools of thought. A philosopher called
August Comte developed the theory of Classical/Cometean Positivism from 1830-1842
(Phillips,D.C. 1983). Comte based his theory on observation of the nature of science. The
nature of science as Comte described as the “objective determinable observable
phenomena” (Phillips, D.C. 1983,p5). Knowledge that humans can analyse using a scientific
method is considered to be knowledge. There was a dominant interest within the sciences.
(Lindberg,J.2001) The concept of the nature of science lead to many researchers such B.F
Skinner, Albert Bandura, Ellis Page (Phillips,D.C.1983) to move towards the theory.
Positivism was made popular due to the clarification of science. In order to have a clear
indication of what scientific knowledge was. (Neurath,O.2001) Comte categorized scientific
knowledge in many groups. He categorized the study of humans as social
physics.(Phillips,D.C.1983) The scientific method that was being applied to solve problems
sparked a great interest amongst researchers. Comte established three theoretical states.
The first state theoretical sate/ fictitious sate. This stage refers to reasoning through belief
something exists.(Phillips,D.C. 2000).The metaphysical state which is study of what humans
cannot see such as atoms. (Phillips,D.C.2000) The last state is the scientific state which
provides scientific evidence for events. The theory of empiricism was developed from
observation.(Phillips,D.C. 2000) In order to reach absolute truth scientific investigation must
be applied. (Phillips,D.C. 2000) The emphasis on proving scientific knowledge made
positivistic views popular among researchers.
There was a shift from Classical Positivism to Logical Positivism. Logical positivism was
founded in the 1920s in Vienna and Germany. (Neurath,O.2001). A group of researchers
from all around the world and had different expertise in the sciences came together in
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Vienna to form the Vienna Circle (Phillips, D.C, 1983). These researches consisted of
Schlick, Frank, Carnap, Waissman, Neurath, Godel, Hahn, Kraft and later Reichenbach,
Hempel, Ayer (Phillips,D.C.2000) Logical positivism influenced the ideas of liberalism in the
late 19th century and Marxism. (Neurath,O.2001) Logical positivist rejected the notion of
metaphysics unlike the classical positivists. Metaphysics could not be observed. Popper
stated that metaphysics was important because scientific ideas stemmed from metaphysics
but it did not pertain to science (Phillips,D.C. 2000). This is contradictory because logical
positivist believed science could make improve society in the future which was one of its
main attractions. (Phillips,D.C.1986) The emphasis on proving scientific knowledge made
positivistic views popular among researchers. Logical positivists believed in the Verifiability
Principle which Classical Positivist did not. (Phillips, D.C. 1983) This made it easier for
philosophers to distinguish what was science and what was not. The Verifiability Principle
was based on “If it can’t be seen or measured, it is not meaningful to talk about” (Phillips,
D.C, 1983). This brought more interest in the theory because there were guidelines to what
should be considered as knowledge. The Verifiability Principle eventually was discredited
due to many critics in philosophy (Phillips, D.C.1983). The fall of positivism was due to the
assentation of the philosopher Schlick and the rise of Adolf Hitler which in the 1930s.
(Phillips, D.C. 1983).
Positivism had a great influence on behaviourism. “Man continues to be described as though
he were some complicated piece of machinery” (Heather,H.1979, p87). Behaviourists and
Positivists view human nature to be objective. There is an input and a desirable output just
like machines. Man has no agency and is seen as predictable. (Heather,H. 1979) Heather
explains it is because human behaviour is categorized as scientific physics which is
completely objective. Behaviourists only deduct on what is observable which results in
predicting and controlling behaviour. (Heather,H. 1979). According to Skinner the
arrangement of contingencies can result into the desirable behaviour. These are future
events or schedules that enable us to predict behaviour. Skinner relies on three factors that
produce desirable behaviour. We learn by doing and we learn from experience. The learner
is seen as taking an active role within the learning environment. (Skinner, B.F. 1968)
Experience is seen as the input for the behaviour and doing is seen as the output. This is
another example of how Skinner views human behaviour in a mechanical form. (Skinner,
B.F. 1968) We are able to devise thinking patterns that happen within the learner that result
in the desirable behaviour. The third factor is we learn by trial and error. This relates to the
consequences of the behaviour for example punishment and reward (Skinner, B.F.1968).
This is another reference to how humans are seen as mechanical. There is no agency but
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there is simply reward and punishment. This is referred to as positive and negative
reinforcement. Skinner calls this operate conditioning. (Skinner, B.F. 1968)
These responses are a display natural behaviour in organisms. Any behaviour that is not
predicted or out of the norm is merely seen as a contingency. This view disregards human
intuition, feeling or reasoning which gives the perception of humans being ‘well- oiled
machines’. “Different performances can be brought under the control of different stimuli in
the same organism” (Skinner, B.F. 1968, p45).The statement shows that it does not matter
what organism it is whether it be rats, pigeons or humans there will be a similar behaviour
responses. (Skinner,B.F.1986) The researcher must be aware of what the desirable
behaviour is and what reinforcements can be in order to evoke the behaviour.
(Skinner,B.F.1986) Humans are seen merely as a ‘thing’ with no type agency.
(Heather,H.1979). Humans are being demoted in a sense, because they are seen put in a
class with other organisms that are not at the same complexity as a human.
(Heather,H.1979)
The behaviourist approach has been applied in the classroom and it reflects how learners
are being seen as mechanical beings. In foundation phase mathematics, the child is
expected to have a large number of responses (Skinner,B.F. 1968). The teachers goal is get
the learners to write, or verbally say the right number whether they are doing subtraction,
addition, division or multiplication (Skinner,B.F. 1968). The behaviour must be in control of
the stimulus. In order to control behaviour positive and negative reinforcement is used
(Skinner,B.F.1986). For example a learner is sitting at his desk working on a worksheet.
This behaviour is adhered to because the learner does not want the teacher to give him a
demerit. Another teacher may use positive reinforcement by given a learner a star when he
is finished with his work.
Humans cannot be seen merely as mechanical organisms because our internal environment
needs to be considered. “If a man is free, there is no way of predicting what he will do and
therefore no chance of describing his behaviour in lawful terms” (Heather,H.1976,p22). The
behaviour cannot be predicted because humans interpret the world around them due to
intuition and agency. Skinner’s “stimulus” and “reinforcements” may be interpreted
differently by each individual and therefore we cannot predict how a human will react to it
(Heather,H.1976). Therefore there is no predicted input or output and the view of mechanical
beings is rejected. Since we cannot observe our internal environment it does not mean it
must be disregarded. (Heather,H.1976) A human’s internal environment must be considered
because it has an influence on our behaviour. (Heather,H.1976) Behaviour cannot be seen
purely as an individual experience. (Heather,H.1976) The social environment also plays a
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role, interactions between individuals allow for shared experiences and meanings. These
meanings are constructed from these interactions and influence human behaviour.
(Heather,H.1976) . This is why behaviourist could not explain the learning of
language(Heather,H.1976)
“Education is perhaps the most important branch of scientific technology”
(Skinner,B.F.1968,p19) Skinner stresses that education is part of science and is important
because it manufactures desirable behaviour. Problems were raised in the traditional
education system pertaining to behaviourism (Skinner, B.F,1968). There were infrequencies
of reinforcement. The learners are dependent on the teacher to tell them if they are right or
wrong. (Skinner,B.F.1968) Reinforcements should be given in less than 24 hours to the
learners in order for the desirable behaviour to occur.(Skinner,B.F.1968) In cases such as
tests the learner will receive feedback a day or so later. The teacher is not able to effectively
reinforce learners because of the number of learners in a class. Learning is more focused on
external factors such as democracy and not reinforcements which has an effect on
behaviour.(Skinner,B.F.1968). In order to eradicate these problems in the classroom Skinner
developed machines which would help learners with mathematics and spelling. “She must
have help of mechanical devices” (Skinner,B.F.1968,p22) These machines provided
immediate reinforcement and was not dependent on the teacher. These machines offered
continuous revision and no aversive control. (Skinner,B.F.1968). The machines were
introduced to replace the role of the teacher. “The teacher is out of date”
(Skinner,B.F.1968,p22). This emphasises that teachers were not seen as humans but were
seen as a means for an outcome. Teachers can be replaced with a machine so primarily
they were seen as machines.
The behaviourist approach in a classroom can be problematic. Teachers will be expect
certain answers from a learner. Once the teacher has gotten the right answer she will move
on to the next phase of work. Learners are not given the opportunity to question and critically
analyse content. This may cause learners to not understand the foundation of the content
but simply just know the right answer. Teachers may not expect the learner to ask why? The
teacher may not be able to scaffold content knowledge because she is simply looking for the
right answer. Skinners machines were designed to give the right and wrong answers which
will not solve the problem either. Social interactions are important in order to produce critical
learners. A learner has agency and the social interactions create meanings and foundations
for content knowledge (Heather,H.1968) Social meanings may influence his/her
behaviour.(Heather,H.1968)
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Positivism has had a great influence on the philosophical and psychological fields. The
clarity of the sciences came to great use. The theory has many discrepancies and
inconsistent statements. Such as the categorization and meaning of metaphysics.
(Heather,H.1968) Positivism influenced behaviourism due to the objective views of
positivists. Behaviourists viewed humans as mechanical which is not the case due to the fact
agency, consciousness and intuition of humans need to be considered as some of the
influences of behaviour. Adapting behaviourism in the classroom will produce learners that
are not able to reason and critically think of the world around them. These learners will
simply be products of a ‘well-oiled machine’
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Reference List
Heather,H.(1979). Positivism and psychology. Radical Perspectives in Psychology. London:
Methuen. 2,11-39
Neurath, O.(2001).Physicalism. In Lindberg,J.J.(Eds). Analytical philosophy: Beginnings to
the present. Mayfield CA: Mayfeild Publishing Company.
Phillips, D.C. (2000). Positivism. The expanded social scientists bestiary. Lanham: Rowman
& Littlefield. 9,156-168
Phillips, D.C.(1983). After the wake: postpositivistic educational thought. Educational
Researcher, 12(5), 4-12
Skinner, B.F. (1968). The etymology of teaching. The technology of teaching. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 1,1-8
Skinner, B.F. (1968). The science of learning and the art of teaching. The technology of
teaching. Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 2, 9-28
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