New Jersey vs. T.L.O. (1985)
1
In 1980, a teacher at a high school in New Jersey found two girls smoking in a
bathroom. Students were allowed to smoke in some areas of the school, but
smoking in the restrooms was against school rules. The teacher took the two girls
to the principal's office. There, they met with Assistant Vice Principal Theodore
Choplick. One of the girls was T.L.O., a 14-year-old freshman. T.L.O. said she had
not been smoking and said that she did not smoke at all. The second girl admitted
that she had been smoking.
Choplick took T.L.O. into his office. He told her to give him her purse. When he
opened the purse, he found a pack of cigarettes. He took the cigarettes out of the
purse and showed them to T.L.O. He said she had lied about smoking in the
restroom. He also found a package of cigarette rolling papers. In his opinion, this
meant that T.L.O. might be using marijuana. He decided to search T.L.O.'s purse
some more. When he did so, he found some marijuana, a pipe, and empty plastic
bags. He also found one-dollar bills, a list of students who owed T.L.O. money, and
some letters. In the letters, there was information that showed that T.L.O. was
selling marijuana.
Choplick then called T.L.O.'s mother and the police. They both came to the school.
Choplick gave the items from the purse to the police. The police asked the mother
to take T.L.O. to the police station. At the police station, T.L.O. admitted that she
had been selling marijuana at school. The State of New Jersey brought charges
against T.L.O. The evidence they used was T.L.O.'s admission and the items from
her purse.
T.L.O. said that the search violated the Fourth Amendment protection against
unreasonable search and seizure. She tried to have the evidence from her purse
kept out of court. She also argued that her confession should be suppressed,
because it happened as a result of the unreasonable search. The juvenile court
turned down her Fourth Amendment arguments. The Court said that a school
official may search a student if that official has a "reasonablesuspicion that a crime
has been or is in the process of being committed". A school official may also search
a student if he has "reasonable cause to believe that the search is necessary to
maintain school discipline or enforce school policies."
The juvenile court concluded that Choplick's search was reasonable. It said that
Choplick was justified in searching the purse because of his reasonable suspicion
that T.L.O. had violated school rules by smoking in the restroom. When Choplick
opened the purse, evidence of marijuana use was in plain view. This justified the
further search of the purse. In January 1982, T.L.O. was found delinquent and
sentenced to one year of probation.
T.L.O. appealed her case in the New Jersey courts. The Supreme Court of New
Jersey found that Choplick's search was unreasonable. The state appealed.
In 1983, the Supreme Court of the United States agreed to hear the case. In 1985,
the Court handed down its decision.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1. Why did Choplick search T.L.O.'s purse?
2. What does the Fourth Amendment say?
3. Try to make an argument that the search of T.L.O.'s purse was a violation of
her Fourth Amendment rights.
4. Now try to make an argument that the Fourth Amendment does not apply to
students in public schools at all.
5. Does the search of T.L.O.'s purse seem "reasonable" to you? Why or why
not?
6. Should the procedures for searching students in schools be the same as the
procedures for searching adults? Why or why not?
Hazelwood vs. Kuhlmeier (1988)
2
In May 1983, students in the Journalism II class at Hazelwood East High School in
St. Louis, Missouri, created the final edition of the school paper, the Spectrum.
Before publishing the paper, they submitted it to their advisor, Howard Emerson,
so he could review it. Emerson was new to the job, so he followed the procedures
of the previous advisor. Those guidelines required him to give Principal Robert
Reynolds, the opportunity to review the paper before it was published.
When Principal Reynolds reviewed the paper, he found two articles that
concerned him. The first dealt with the issue of teen pregnancy. It included
comments from pregnant students at the school. To protect their privacy, names
were not given. However, when Reynolds read the article, he realized that the
details in the article would make it easy for other students to identify the pregnant
teens. The second article addressed the issue of divorce. Like the first article, this
one included personal articles. One student, whose parents were divorced, made
negative comments about her father. She said that her father was always out with
the guys and that her father didn't spend enough time with the family. Principal
Reynolds was troubled by the fact that the father had not been given a chance to
defend himself by responding to his daughter's comments. He also noticed that
the article mentioned sex and birth control. He did not think that students in ninth
grade should be reading about sex and birth control.
Reynolds wanted the journalism students to modify the articles. However, it was
almost the end of the school year. If they took the time to revise, they would miss
the deadline for publishing the newspaper. If that happened, the other students
might never get to read the paper. He felt like he had to act quickly, so he told
Emerson to delete the two pages with the offending articles and publish the rest of
the Spectrum. He told his supervisors about this decision and they agreed with
him.
The students had worked hard on the paper and felt that they had followed proper
journalism procedures. If they had been approached about the problems, they
may have been able to correct them. They were upset to find out instead that two
pages, which included a number of nonoffensive articles, had been deleted. They
felt that their First Amendment rights had been violated. They took the case to the
U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
The Court did not agree with the students. In the ruling, the judges said that school
officials may impose limits on students' speech in activities that are "an integral
part of the school's educational function" as long as their decision "has a
substantial and reasonable basis." In other words, the Court felt that if the school
has a good reason to do so, it can place limits on curricular activities, such as the
publication of the school newspaper.
Unhappy with the outcome, the students appealed their case to the Court of
Appeals for the Eighth Circuit Court. This court reversed the decision of the lower
court, saying that the students' First Amendment rights were violated. In the
opinion, the Court explained that the newspaper was part of the school curriculum
but was also a "public forum." As a public forum, the newspaper was "intended to
be and operated as a conduit for student viewpoint". Because the paper was a
forum for student discussion, the principal or other officials could censor it only
when "necessary to avoid material and substantial interference with school work
or discipline . . . or the rights of others."
The school appealed the decision of the Court of Appeals and the Supreme Court
of the United States agreed to hear the case. In determining whether or not
students' rights were violated, it would consider whether or not the student
newspaper was a public forum and whether the First Amendment "requires a
school affirmatively to promote particular student speech."
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1. Why did the newspaper advisor give the paper to Principal Reynolds for
review? Was that standard procedure?
2. What concerns did Principal Reynolds have regarding the two articles? Were
these legitimate concerns? Were there other ways that the principal could have
handled the situation?
3. Do you think Principal Reynolds was justified in deleting the two pages of the
paper? Should a principal be able to censor student newspapers? If so, under
what conditions?
4. What rights did the students believe had been violated?
5. Were there any steps the students could have taken other than filing a lawsuit?
6. Should a principal or other school authority be able to silence other forms of
student speech? If so, under what conditions? How does speech by an
individual student differ from speech by the school newspaper?
Tinker vs. Des Moines (1969)
3
John and Mary Beth Tinker were public school students in Des Moines, Iowa in
December of 1965. As part of a group against American involvement in the
Vietnam War, they decided to publicize their opposition by wearing black
armbands to school. Having heard of the students' plans, the principals of the
public schools in Des Moines adopted and informed students of a new policy
concerning armbands. This policy stated that any student who wore an armband
to school would be asked immediately to remove it. A student who refused to take
off his or her armband would be suspended until agreeing to return to school
without the band.
Two days later and aware of the school policy, the Tinker children and a friend
decided to wear armbands to school. Upon arriving at school, the children were
asked to remove their armbands. They did not remove the armbands and were
subsequently suspended until they returned to school without their armbands.
The children returned to school without armbands after January 1, 1966, the date
scheduled for the end of their protest. However, their fathers filed suit in U.S.
District Court. This suit asked the court for a small amount of money for damages
and an injunction to restrain school officials from enforcing their armband policy.
Although the District Court recognized the children's First Amendment right to free
speech, the court refused to issue an injunction, claiming that the school officials'
actions were reasonable in light of potential disruptions from the students'
protest. The Tinkers appealed their case to the U.S. Court of Appeals but were
disappointed when a tie vote in that court allowed the District Court's ruling stand.
As a result they decided to appeal the case to the Supreme Court of the United
States.
The case came down to this fundamental question: Do the First Amendment rights
of free speech extend to symbolic speech by students in public schools? And, if so,
in what circumstances is that symbolic speech protected? The First Amendment
states "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech." The
Fourteenth Amendment extends this rule to state governments as well, of which
school systems are a part. The First Amendment, however, does not identify which
kinds of speech are protected. For example, it is not clear whether hate speech
against an individual or group is protected. Neither does the First Amendment
specify what types of expressive actions should be considered as speech.
The Supreme Court of the United States has made many attempts to determine
what types of symbolic speech are protected under the First Amendment. In 1919,
the Court decided in Schenck v. United States that an individual could be punished
for distributing anti-World War I pamphlets urging non-compliance with the draft
because the pamphlets "create[ed] a clear and present danger that they will bring
about [a] substantive evil[ . . .] Congress has a right to prevent"—draft obstruction.
The Court wrestled with the issue of the right to symbolic speech again in the case
of Thornhill v.Alabama (1940) when the Court ruled that picketing was a form of
symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment because no clear and present
danger of destruction of life or property or of breach of the peace was inherent in
the action. Three years later in West Virginia v. Barnette (1943), the Court
extended the First Amendment protection of symbolic speech to students in public
schools. In Barnette, the Court held "[i]f there is any fixed star in our constitutional
constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be
orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion. . . ."
In 1968 the Supreme Court of the United States agreed to hear Tinker's case and
consider the constitutionality of the Des Moines principals' anti-armband policy.
The Court's decision in Tinker v. Des Moines was handed down in 1969.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1. Do you think that the school policy banning armbands was fair? Why or why
not?
2. The students knew they would be suspended if they wore armbands to school
and chose to do so anyway. Why do you think they ignored the rule?
3. The First Amendment says "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the
freedom of speech." Why do you think the Supreme Court of the United
States has ruled that certain actions should have the same protection as verbal
speech? Are these reasons valid?
4. In both Schenck and Thornhill, the Court seemed to make a rule that certain
actions were guaranteed protection under the First Amendment's freedom of
speech clause as long as those actions did not . . . What rule or test did the
Court seem to make?
5. Pretend that students in your school wanted to protest the school-wide ban on
smoking. Should they legally be allowed to protest by wearing T-shirts that
read "Up with 'Butts'!"? Why or why not?