CHAPTER 7 Business Strategy: Innovation and Strategic Entrepreneurship McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 2 Strategy Formulation 7–2 LO 7-1 Define innovation and describe its role in the competitive process. LO 7-2 Describe the competitive implications of different stages in the industry life cycle. LO 7-3 Apply strategic management concepts to entrepreneurship and innovation. LO 7-4 Evaluate different types of innovation and derive their strategic implications. LO 7-5 Describe the long-tail concept and derive strategic implications. LO 7-6 Evaluate discontinuities and describe the dynamics of paradigm changes. LO 7-7 Identify the process leading to hypercompetition, and explain why competitive advantage can often be sustained through continuous innovation. 7–3 Innovation Funnel 7–4 The The Development Development of of Technology: Technology: From From Knowledge Knowledge Generation Generation to to Diffusion Diffusion IMITATION Supply side Basic Knowledge Invention Innovation Diffusion Demand side ADOPTION 7–5 The TheDevelopment Development of of Technology: Technology:Lags LagsBetween Between Knowledge KnowledgeGeneration Generation and andCommercialization Commercialization BASIC KNOWLEDGE FIRST PATENTS PRODUCT LAUNCH IMITATION Xerography late 19th and early 20th centuries 1940 1958 1974 Jet Engines 17th-- early 20th centuries 1930 1957 1959 Fuzzy logic controllers 1960’s 1981 1987 1988 Appropriation Appropriation of of Value:Value:- How How are are the the Benefits Benefits from from Innovation Innovation Distributed? Distributed? Customers Suppliers Innovator Imitators and other “followers” 7–7 The The Profitability Profitability of of Innovation Innovation Profits from Innovation Value of the innovation Innovator’s ability to appropriate the value of the innovation • Legal protection • Complementary resources • Imitability of the technology •Lead time 7–8 Legal Legal Protection Protection of of Intellectual Intellectual Property Property • Patents • Copyrights • Trademarks • Trade Secrets —exclusive rights to a new product, process, substance or design. —exclusive rights to artistic, dramatic, and musical works. — exclusive rights to words, symbols or other marks to distinguish goods and services; trademarks are registered with the Patent Office. — protection of chemical formulae, recipes, and industrial processes. Also, private contracts between firms and between a firm and its iemployees can restrict the transfer of technology and know how. 7–9 U.S. U.S. Managers’ Managers’ Perceptions Perceptions of of the the Effectiveness Effectiveness of of Different Different Mechanisms Mechanisms for for Protecting Protecting Innovation Innovation Processes Patents to prevent duplication 3.52 Patents to secure royalty income 3.31 Secrecy 4.31 Lead time 5.11 Moving quickly down the learning 5.02 curve Sales or service efforts 4.55 1 = not at all effective Products 4.33 3.75 3.57 5.41 5.09 5.59 7 = very effective Source: Levin, Klevorick, Nelson & Winter. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1987. The Technology Transfer Process Research $29.5 billion Disclosure IP Decision 13,039 disclosures 6,375 patent applications IP Protection 3,764 issued patents Commercialization Strategy 4,362 licenses 454 new companies Licensing Source: AUTM Licensing Survey: FY 2000 7-11 Alternative AlternativeStrategies Strategiesfor forExploiting ExploitingInnovation Innovation Licensing Risk & Return Strategic Alliance Joint Venture Shares investment & risk. Risk of partner conflict & culture clash Small risk, but limited returns also (unless patent position very strong Limits investment, but dependence on suppliers & partners Benefits of flexibility; risks of informal structure Few Allows outside resources & capabilities To be accessed Permits pooling of the resources/capabilities of more than one firm Konica licensing its digital camera to HP Pixar’s movies (e.g. “Toy Story”) marketed & distributed by Disney. Competing Resources Examples Outsourcing certain functions Apple and Sharp build the “Newton” PDA Microsoft and NBC formed MSNBC Internal Commercialization Biggest risks & benefits. Allows complete control Substantial resource requirements TI’s development of Digital Signal Processing Chips 7–12 The TheComparative ComparativeSuccess Successof of Leaders Leadersand and Followers Followers PRODUCT Jet Airliners Float glass X-Ray Scanner Office P.C. VCRs Diet Cola Instant Cameras Pocket Calculator Microwave Oven Plain Paper Copiers Fiber Optic Cable Video Games Players Disposable Diapers Web browser PDA MP3 music players INNOVATOR De Havilland (Comet) Pilkington EMI Xerox Ampex/Sony R.C. Cola Polaroid Bowmar Raytheon Xerox Corning Atari Proctor & Gamble Netscape Psion, Apple Diamond Multimedia FOLLOWER Boeing (707) Corning General Electric IBM Matsushita Coca Cola Kodak Texas Instruments Samsung Canon many companies Nintendo/Sega/Sony Kimberly-Clark Microsoft Palm Sony (&others) WINNER Follower Leader Follower Follower Follower Follower Leader Follower Follower Not clear Leader Followers Leader Follower Follower Followers 7–13 Uncertainty Uncertainty&&Risk RiskManagement Managementin inTech-based Tech-basedIndustries Industries Technological uncertainty Sources of uncertainty Market uncertainty Selection process for standards and dominant designs emerge is complex and diifficult to predict, e.g. future of 3G Customer acceptance and adoption rates of innovations notoriously difficult to predict, e.g. PC, Xerox copier, Walkman Cooperating with lead users early identification of customer requirements –assistance in new product development Strategies for managing risk Flexibilility —keep options open —use speed of response to adapt quickly to new information —learn from mistakes Limiting risk exposure —avoid major capital commitments (e.g. lease don’t buy) —outsource —alliances to access other firms’ resources & capabilities —keep debt low 7–14 Sources Sources of of Network Network Externalities Externalities • User linkages, e.g. – Telephone systems—only value of telephone is connection to other users – Video game consoles—same platform allows users to exchange games and play interactively – On-line auction—value of auction depends on number of buyers and sellers participating Also, social identification—listening to same music, watching same TV shows, wearing same clothes in order to conform • Availability of complementary products, e.g. – Most PC applications software written for Windows, not Mac. – In economy autos, easier to get parts and repair for a Ford Focus than for a Maruti or Proton • Economizing on switching costs, e.g. – In suites of office software, users of Microsoft Office more likely to avoid switching costs that users of Lotus SmartSuite when they move jobs 7–15 Competing Competing for for Standards: Standards: Value Value Appropriation Appropriation vs. vs. Market Market Acceptance Acceptance Maximize market acceptance VHS Betamax LOOSE Maximize value appropriation TIGHT IBM-PC Mac The TheConditions Conditionsfor forCreativity: Creativity: “Operating” “Operating” and and “Innovating” “Innovating” Organizations Organizations Structure Processes Reward Systems People Operating Organization Innovating Organization Bureaucratic. Specialization and division of labor. Hierarchical control Operating units controlled and coordinated by top management which undertakes strategic planning, capital allocation and operational planning. Financial compensation, promotion up the hierarchy, power and status symbols. Recruitment and selection based upon the needs of the organization structure for specific skills: functional and staff specialists, general managers, and operatives. Flat organization without hierarchical control. Task-oriented project teams. Processes directed toward generation, selection, funding and development of ideas. Strategic planning flexible, financial and operating controls loose. Autonomy, recognition, equity participation in new ventures Key need is for idea generators which combine required technical knowledge with creative personality traits. Managers must act as sponsors and orchestrators. 7–17 Strategy Strategy Implementation: Implementation: Invention Invention to to Innovation Innovation • • • • While invention depends upon creativity, successful innovation requires integrating new knowledge with multiple business functions. Need to link R&D departments with other functions (the problem of Xerox’s PARC) The role of cross-functional new product development teams as vehicles for integration The role of product champions--in achieving integration and counteracting organizational inertia. Chapter Case 7 From Encyclopedia Britannica to Encarta to Wikipedia • 18th century Scottish Enlightenment creates Encyclopedia Britannica (E.B.) 65,000 topics by 4,000 scholars In 1991, E. B. sales $650M (market was $1.2 billion annually) Price ~$2,000 per set of books • Microsoft launches Encarta in 1993 for $99 ea. By 1996 Encarta U.S. sales over $100M & E.B. ~$300M • Mr. Wales launches Wikipedia in 2001 for $0 ea. 3.6 million articles in English ( 40X E.B. !) 18 million total in 281 languages In ‘09 Microsoft shut down Encarta Peer-reviewed study of 42 topics found 4 errors in Wiki…3 in E.B. 7–19 Chapter Case 7 From Encyclopedia Britannica to Encarta to Wikipedia • The innovation of CD-based encyclopedia Destroyed more than ½ the revenue of encyclopedias • Technology allowed Wikipedia to increase value and decrease costs • The innovative business model: "Crowd wisdom" for big value But NO revenue Wikipedia is funded by donations of time and money 7–20 Competition Driven by Innovation • Invention is discovery of new ideas/products Wright brothers – airplane flight • Innovation is the commercialization of invention Boeing & Airbus – selling the airplanes • Schumpeter’s “gale of creative destruction” Encyclopedias to Wikipedia… Typewriters to PCs to ??? Pharmaceuticals to custom treatments (individualized medicine) 7–21 EXHIBIT 7.1 Innovation: A Novel and Useful Idea that is Successfully Implemented Innovation is an invention that is implemented in the marketplace 7–22 Innovation and the Industry Life Cycle • Innovations create new industries Big box retailing Express delivery Nanotechnology still evolving • Four stages of industry development 1. Introduction Early adopters will pay a premium Only a few innovators in the market – differentiated Strategy here — market acceptance & seeds for growth – Network effects helpful • Positive effects ONE user has for other users 7–23 EXHIBIT 7.2 The Industry Life Cycle and ConsumerAdoption Categories STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 7.1 Apple Leverages Network Effects to Propel Growth • Apple launched iPhone in summer ‘07 Launched app store a year later Small programs but BIG business! - Over $4 billion in 2012 Virtuous cycle of 10 billion Apple apps downloaded by 2011 Apps increase value of the iPhone (& iPad too!) More devices sold, incentivizes software developers Recent iBook store likely to grow the network effects still more 1–25 7–25 EXHIBIT 7.3 Leveraging Network Economics: Apple’s iPhone Virtuous Cycle for iPhone (& iPad) 7–26 Innovation and the Industry Life Cycle • Four stages of industry development (cont'd) 2. Growth Stage Early majority buyers increase growth rapidly Dominant design is set – IBM PC: Wintel – Government influence – GSM standard for mobile phones – QWERTY keyboards Core competencies move to manufacturing & marketing An example of growth stage Women’s shapeware industry – Spanx started in 1998 • Sold over 5M units & over $750 million in sales by 2008 – Maidenform, Body Wrap, & Miraclesuit are competitors 7–27 EXHIBIT 7.4 Product and Process Innovation and the Emergence of an Industry Standard After an industry standard is established, process innovations become more important. 7–28 STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 7.2 Some Standards Die Hard: QWERTY vs. DSK • QWERTY introduced in 1870s Slowed down typing to avoid jamming keys • Dvorak introduced in 1930s Minimized finger reach to speed up typing 7–29 Innovation and the Industry Life-Cycle • Four stages of industry development (cont'd) 3. Maturity Late majority buyers & more limited market growth – Increased competitive rivalry Cost leadership firms tend to drive industry – Weaker firms will exit Oligopoly is dominant industry structure in this stage 4. Decline Laggards are buyers and market size shrinks Four strategic options: – Exit – get out of the industry – Harvest – stay with limited investments (Olivetti) – Maintain – stay & continue marketing (Marlboro) – Consolidate – buy rivals, near monopoly (IBM mainframes) 7–30 EXHIBIT 7.5 Features of the Industry Life Cycle Not all industries emerge through these stages and some can rejuvenate such as the steel industry with mini-mills. 7–31 LO 7-1 Define innovation and describe its role in the competitive process. LO 7-2 Describe the competitive implications of different stages in the industry life cycle. LO 7-3 Apply strategic management concepts to entrepreneurship and innovation. LO 7-4 Evaluate different types of innovation and derive their strategic implications. LO 7-5 Describe the long-tail concept and derive strategic implications. LO 7-6 Evaluate discontinuities and describe the dynamics of paradigm changes. LO 7-7 Identify the process leading to hypercompetition, and explain why competitive advantage can often be sustained through continuous innovation. 7–32 Strategic Entrepreneurship • Entrepreneurs are the change agents for creative destruction. Create new opportunities and exploit them Jeff Bezos – Amazon.com – Saw growth of Internet in 1994 – Chose books as the first product for online sales Oprah Winfrey – Harpo Productions – Rose from abuse & poverty to over $2 billion net worth – Ended talk show to devote time to OWN TV channel Jeff Hawkins – Palm Computing (founded in 1992) – PalmPilot and Treo products How to combine entrepreneurial with strategic actions? Example: P&G continued innovations in detergent 7–33 EXHIBIT 7.6 Types of Innovation: Combining Markets and Technologies GPS to handheld consumer devices MRI radiology Intel 386 to 486 processors Digital photography Categorizing according to technology and markets yields 4 quadrants 7–34 STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 7.3 1930s From King Gillette to King of Incremental Innovation 2011 1–35 7–35 STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 7.3 From King Gillette to King of Incremental Innovation • Gillette invented the safety razor in 1903 A radical innovation at the start Innovative business model Make money from the blades NOT the razors Incremental innovation Moved from 1 to six blades (so far…) Top selling blades today! Over $1 billion in sales Prices steady to higher for the blades! 1–36 7–36 EXHIBIT 7.7 Disruptive Innovation Invading Different Market Segments from the Bottom Up Google’s Chrome OS could be a disruptor of traditional Microsoft operating systems for computers… 7–37 STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 7.4 GE’s Reverse Innovation: Disrupt Yourself! • GE Healthcare – global leader in diagnostics Ultrasound machine for research hospitals – $230,000 Limited market for these in developing countries 2002 local team at GE China – developed portable US Laptop-based technology – Under $30,000 for U.S. rollout 2009 introduced a handheld US – about $10,000 Vscan - large cell phone – shaped device GE Vscan Video 1–38 7–38 LO 7-1 Define innovation and describe its role in the competitive process. LO 7-2 Describe the competitive implications of different stages in the industry life cycle. LO 7-3 Apply strategic management concepts to entrepreneurship and innovation. LO 7-4 Evaluate different types of innovation and derive their strategic implications. LO 7-5 Describe the long-tail concept and derive strategic implications. LO 7-6 Evaluate discontinuities and describe the dynamics of paradigm changes. LO 7-7 Identify the process leading to hypercompetition, and explain why competitive advantage can often be sustained through continuous innovation. 7–39 The Internet as Disruptive Force: The Long Tail • Long tail in a digital world Both opportunity and threat 80% sales in a given category are NOT “hits” Pareto principle Technology enables easier access to the ‘tail’ Selling “less of more” Online firms can gain a large share of revenue from selling a small number of nearly unlimited choices • Short head is the mainstream Available at brick & mortar stores Significant inventory costs Ray Kurzwiel Video 7–40 EXHIBIT 7.8 The Short Head and the Long Tail The Internet and inventory management software drive down costs to match customer demand, increasing the tail to the black dotted line. 7–41 EXHIBIT 7.9 The Long-Tail Consequences: Selling Less of More 25% to 45% of sales for online retailers is from products NOT available in traditional retail stores. 7–42 LO 7-1 Define innovation and describe its role in the competitive process. LO 7-2 Describe the competitive implications of different stages in the industry life cycle. LO 7-3 Apply strategic management concepts to entrepreneurship and innovation. LO 7-4 Evaluate different types of innovation and derive their strategic implications. LO 7-5 Describe the long-tail concept and derive strategic implications. LO 7-6 Evaluate discontinuities and describe the dynamics of paradigm changes. LO 7-7 Identify the process leading to hypercompetition, and explain why competitive advantage can often be sustained through continuous innovation. 7–43 Discontinuities: Periods of Paradigm Change • Periods when underlying standard changes Paradigm shift New technology revolutionizes existing industries – New standard is established Technology “S-curve” – Physical limits nearing or reached Incumbents need absorptive capacity Existing firms must place “good bets” on new technologies Examples of Discontinuities Airplanes: propellers to jets Cameras: film to digital TV screens: vacuum tube to flat panel Music storage: vinyl to CDs to MP3 storage EXHIBIT 7.10 Likelihood of Discontinuity Increases as Technology Approaches Physical Limit The Internet and inventory management software drive down costs to match customer demand, increasing the tail to the black dotted line. 7–46 Rate of Technological Progress (reduction in emissions) Ex: Hybrid as Intermediate Step for Autos Electric Hybrid Combustion Time Combustion has been automobile standard for over 100 years… Is it time for a new standard? This is one scenario from the “swarm” (for more discussion, see MiniCase 7). 7–47 EXHIBIT 7.11 Hypercompetition Driven by Continuous Innovation Subsequent innovations sustain competitive advantage for a shorter time frame. 7–48