1
AP Literature and Composition Vocabulary – Grammatical, Rhetorical, and Literary Terms
Many students struggle in exams, in college, or in their careers because they do not have a full comprehension of certain
vocabulary or terms that teacher, professors, and supervisors use. This Rhetorical and Literary Vocabulary terms list is
meant to help bridge that gap. This list should help hard-working students to be more successful in the classroom and
later in their chosen careers—to speak, read, listen, and write effectively. These terms should be of use to you in
analyzing texts and in composing your essays. Many of the terms’ definitions have been condensed to a briefer version, so
you can quickly get a grasp of the meaning. We hope you find these definitions helpful in your quest to become a better
reader, listener, writer, and student, not only in English, but in other disciplines and fields as well.
1. absolute phrase – a phrase that consists of a noun or pronoun and at least one other word. An absolute phrase
modifies an entire sentence and not just one word. It can be found anywhere in the sentences, often separated by
commas. Example: Massive head buried in foggy clouds, the dark mountain loomed over the hikers.
2. abstract – a piece of writing which summarizes the principles ideas or arguments advanced in a much longer work.
3. abstract language – language that describes ideas, concepts, or qualities, rather than particular or specific persona,
places, or things. Beauty, courage, love are abstract terms, as opposed to such concrete terms as man, stone, woman.
George Washington, Rosetta Stone, and Philadelphia are particular concrete terms. Characteristically, literature will
use concrete language to animate abstract ideas and principles.
4. abstract nouns: an abstract noun is a word which names something that you cannot see, hear, touch, smell or
taste. It is the opposite of a concrete noun.
5. acronym – a word formed by combining the initial letters or syllables of a series of words to form a name (ex. radar,
or radio detection and ranging).
6. active voice – verbs that emphasize the doer of the action by making that actor the subject of the sentence. So, when
the subject is acting, the verb is in the active voice.
7. accusative case: in other languages, the accusative case's main function is to show the direct object of a verb. In
modern English, it is indistinguishable from the dative case, whose main role in other languages is to show the
indirect object of verb. In English, the objective case covers the roles of both the accusative case and the dative case.
8. adjective – word modifies or tells the reader something about a person, place or thing—or noun—“modifies” it.
Adjectives answer the questions Which one? What kind? How many? Whose? about a noun. Some forms of
adjectives have degrees: comparative and superlative
9. adjective clause: a subordinate clause used as an adjective. An adjective clause may be restrictive, meaning it
“limits” the word referred to by imposing conditions of by confining the word to a particular group or two a specific
item or individual: Every student who cheats will be removed from the class.
10. adjective phrase (adjectival phrase): a phrase, usually a prepositional phrase, that can modify a noun or pronoun.
11. adverb – word which modifies or tells the reader something about a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs
answer the questions When? Where? How? To what extent? Why? Some forms of adverbs have degrees:
comparative and superlative
12. adverbial clause – a dependent clause (includes a subject and a verb) that acts as an adverb in the sentence and
begins with a subordinating conjunction. Relative adverbs where, when, and why begin many adverbial clauses
(some called relative clauses).
13. adverbial conjunction: also called conjunctive adverb: an adverb that is used to join two independent clauses. A
semicolon or period in most cases comes before a conjunctive adverb, and a comma is placed after the conjunctive
adverb.
14. adverb phrase (adverbial phrase): a phrase, usually a prepositional phrase, that can modify a verb, adjective, or
another adverb.
15. aesthetic effect – the pleasure, sense of beauty, emotion, or lack of such that readers, speakers, or listeners derive
from aural, visual, and print texts.
2
16. aesthetic purpose – the effect a writer sets out to achieve constitutes his or her aesthetic purpose. Readers derive
different degrees of pleasure, senses of beauty, and/or emotions from works of literature. Often writers set out to
achieve these particular aesthetic effects through subject matter, word choice, structure, and/or figurative devices.
17. agreement: correspondence in number and person. There are two types of agreement in English usage:
a. subject and verbs must agree in number
b. pronouns and antecedents must agree in number and gender.
18. aim: the goal of a writer or speaker hopes to achieve with a text—for example, to explain or clarify difficult material,
to inform, to persuade. Also called purpose.
19. allegory: allegory is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated
with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or
political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Thus an
allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. The device of using character
and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories,
for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical
meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. There were four categories of
allegory used in the Middle Ages, which had originated with the Bible commentators of the early Christian era.
a. The first is simply the literal interpretation of the events of the story for historical purposes with no
underlying meaning.
b. The second is called typological, which is connecting the events of the Old Testament with the New
Testament; in particular drawing allegorical connections between the events of Christ's life with the
stories of the Old Testament.
c. The third is moral (or tropological), which is how one should act in the present, the "moral of the story".
The fourth type of allegory is anagogical, dealing with the future events of Christian history, heaven, hell,
the last judgment; it deals with prophecies.
20. alliteration: the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in she
sells sea shells). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of
the passage.
21. allusion: a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book,
myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more
possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
22. ambiguity: the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
23. anadiplosis – the repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. From the Greek
for "doubling back." Examples: Aboard my ship, excellent performance is standard. Standard performance is substandard. Sub-standard performance is not permitted to exist." (Queeg in The Caine Mutiny, by Herman Wouk); “I
am Sam, Sam I am." (Dr. Seuss, Green Eggs and Ham); "The general who became a slave. The slave who became a
gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!" (Commodus in the movie Gladiator, 2000)
24. analogy: A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can
explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar.
Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. NOTE: Analogies can be used
as support in exposition and/or persuasion as well as poetic language. Here the writer explains or describes
something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar OR supports or proves an unknown by comparing it to
something known or already proven.
25. analysis – A method by which we examine a piece of art or literature in detail in order to understand it better or draw
conclusions from it. Also, we may separate the work into its “components” to find out what it contains, to examine
individual parts, or to study the structure of the whole.
26. analytical reading: a reader’s active engagement by the writer’s ideas and how the ideas are expressed; paying
attention to BOTH content and form.
3
27. anaphora: One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the
beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.’’
28. anastrophe: changing the syntactical order of words inversion. “To the market went she.”
29. anecdote: A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to
an incident in the life of a person.
30. anecdotal scripting: When a reader makes notes in the margins of a text, notes that highlight important point, pose
questions, summarize, or paraphrase, etc., the reader is scripting anecdotally. Another term for “marginalia.”
31. annotated bibliography: An annotated bibliography includes a list of resources, formatted according to a particular
styles sheet, along with prose commentary for each source. This commentary usually includes a brief summary or
overview of the resource, followed by an evaluation and/or recommendation reading the usefulness of the resource.
32. antanaclasis: The stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a different meaning each time. Antanaclasis is a
common type of pun, and like other kinds of pun, it is often found in slogans.
33. antagonist – A character in a story, play, or narrative poem who stands in opposition to the hero (protagonist). The
conflict between antagonist and protagonist often generates the action or plot of the story.
34. antecedent: The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. An ambiguous antecedent is a vague pronoun /
pronoun reference. The antecedent, or the word the pronoun is replacing, is not clear.
35. antihero: a main character in a dramatic or narrative work that is characterized by a lack of traditional heroic
qualities, such as idealism or courage.
36. antimetabole – the pairing of two mirrored phrases or clauses, usually for effect. Antimetabole is a form of
chiasmus. For example, George Bernard Shaw wrote: “We do not stop playing because we grow old; we grow old
because we stop playing.”
37. anthropomorphism: a version of personification, but instead of attributing human qualities to animals, it attributes
human qualities and form to gods or goddesses.
38. antithesis – The juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas in balanced or parallels words, phrases, and grammatical
structures or ideas. For Alexander Pope reminds us that “To err is human, to forgive divine.”
39. antonyms: An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of another.
40. APA: Style manual for the American Psychological Association.
41. aphorism: A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the
authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable
summation of the author’s point.
42. apocope: the process that deletes word-final segments, including unstressed (reduced) vowels. Examples: "You have
more street cred than the local gang”; "Season your admiration for a while with an attent ear”; the pronunciation of
child as chile."
43. apostrophe: A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction,
such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity
or emotional intensity. Example: William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be
living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.”
44. apposition: A grammatical construction in which two elements are placed side by side, with one element serving to
define or modify the other.
45. appositive: a word, or group of words, that identifies or renames the noun or pronoun that it follows. Commas set off
an appositive, unless it is closely tied to the word that it identifies or renames. ("Closely tied" means that it is needed
to identify the word.)
46. appeal: One of the three strategies for persuading audiences—logos, appeal to reason; pathos, appeal to emotion; and
ethos, appeal to ethics.
4
47. archetype – themes, images, and narrative patterns that are universal and thus embody some enduring aspects of
human experience. Some of these themes are the death and rebirth of the hero, the quest, the underground journey,
and the search for the father.
48. argument – In persuasive or expository writing, an argument is the course of reasoning used to deliver the point of
view or main idea that the writer is trying to get across to the reader. An argument can also refer to a particular
statement, fact, or example, etc., that a writer uses to make his/her point. In common use, the words “persuasion” and
“argumentation” can be synonymous. However, in rhetoric, there are very important distinctions with these two
descriptors. Persuasion may focus on emotional appeals and appeals to authority (pathos and ethos), using rhetorical
strategies not primarily based in the citation of facts or factual evidence. Argumentation, on the other hand, similar to
formal debate, tends to rely more heavily upon the citation of established facts (logos), and so is more research-based
and depends on slightly more sophisticated rhetorical strategies to affect a strong response from the reader or listener.
49. argument by analogy – analogies can be used as support for arguments or claims in exposition and/or persuasion.
Here the speaker or writer supports or proves an unknown by comparing it to something known or already proven or
explains or describes something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar.
50. argument by authority – writers and speakers can support an assertion or claim by invoking the words of an expert
or authority. The quality of this type of argument is dependent, however, on the credibility of the expert in the area or
field related to the topic at hand.
51. argument by causation – This type of argument is based on the assumption that A leads directly to result B.
Cause/effect arguments may be unconvincing or difficult to sustain unless the causal relationship between A and B is
generally accepted.
52. argument by emotion – when a speaker or writer appeals to the heart rather than the mind in order to convince the
audience. See also pathos.
53. article – part of speech—a short word (often categorized as adjective) that comes before and points to the noun.
Articles are the words a, an, and the.
54. argument by logic – a logical argument attempts to demonstrate the truth or validity of an assertion or conclusion
through the relating of a set of premises or body of evidence. See also logos.
55. assertion: An unproven statement. Assertions supported by evidence and reasoning make arguments.
56. assonance – The repetition of vowel sounds in a line, stanza, or sentence. For example, Gwendolyn Brooks, in “the
Children of the Poor” describes a character whose “lesions are legion.” By using assonance that occurs at the end of
words, -- my, pie—poets create rhyme.
57. asyndeton – A syntactical structure (see “syntax,” below) in which conjunctions are omitted in a series, usually
producing more rapid prose. For example: “Veni, vedi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered” (a Latin phrase, supposedly
spoken by Julius Caesar).
58. atmosphere: The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and
partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can
contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.
59. audience: The person or persons who listen to a spoken text or read a written one and are capable of responding to it.
60. auxiliary: An auxiliary verb (or helping verb) accompanies another verb in order to help express its tense, mood or
voice. The verbs to have, to be, to do, can, may and shall are commonly used auxiliary verbs.
61. balanced sentence: a sentence with grammatically equal structures.
62. ballad – A narrative poem, originally of folk origin, usually focusing upon a climactic episode in a person’s life.
“Bonny Barbara Allan” and “Edward” are traditional ballads.
63. bias: any belief, ideology, value, or prejudice that inhibits impartial judgment in writing or speaking is a bias.
64. bibliography: a list of books, articles, essays, websites, or other material, usually on a given subject.
65. bildungsroman: a coming of age story. Concentrates on the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development
and growth of the protagonist usually from childhood to maturity.
5
66. blank verse: lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter. Shakespeare’s dramatic poetry and Milton’s Paradise Lost are
written principally in blank verse.
67. body: the part of the essay / letter / other types of writing separate from the introduction or conclusion.
68. brainstorming: a method of generating ideas about a subject, involves listing ideas as they occur in session of
intensive thinking about that subject.
69. cacophony The term in poetry refers to the use of words that combine sharp, harsh, hissing, or unmelodious sounds
70. caesura: A pause separating phrases within lines of poetry
71. capitalization: process and rules that govern/determine whether or not a letter will be used in upper-or-lower-case
form.
72. caricature: a picture or an imitation of a person’s features and/or mannerisms, exaggerated to appear comic or
absurd.
73. case: the form of position of a noun or pronoun that shows its use or relationship to other words in a sentence. The
three in English are the subjective (or nominative) which usually is the subject of a finite verb; the possessive (or
genitive), which indicates ownership; and the objective (or accusative), which functions as the object or the subject of
a verb or preposition.
74. catharsis: describes the release of the emotions of pity and fear by the audience at the end of a tragedy; An emotional
discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety.
75. cause and effect: a rhetorical strategy by which a writer seeks to explain why something happened or what the
results of a particular even or condition were or will be.
76. characterization: the method an author uses to reveal or describe characters and their various personalities (in, for
example, a novel, short story, play, or poem).
77. chiasmus: a figure of speech and a syntactical structure wherein the order of the terms in the first half of a parallel
clause is reversed in the second. For example: He thinks I am but a fool. A fool, perhaps I am.”
78. citation: notation (usually parenthetical) in a paper that refers to a given source.
79. chronological order: the arrangement of events in a time sequence (usually the order in which they occurred).
80. claim: an assertion stated as fact. In other words, although a claim may be presented as a truth, that truth is not
supported by evidence.
81. classification (and/or division): the sorting out of elements into classes or groups, or the separation of something
into its parts. Connected to “division.” Classification and division are used when a writer wants to break something
down into its elements or group a number of things in order to analyze them.
82. clause: a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a
complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a
sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of
what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective
use of subordination in your own writing. There are three types of dependent clauses: a noun clause is a group of
words with a subject and verb that is dependent and functions as a noun in a sentence (subject, object, or
complement). An adjective clause functions as an adjective, and an adverb clause functions as an adverb. See these
parts of speech for more information about their functions.
83. cliché: An old, tired expression that writers should avoid “like the plague,” which is an example of cliché.
84. climax: The turning point, and usually the most intense point, in a narrative.
85. cognate: A word that is related to another or words that have a common ancestor language. Many words in English
are descendants of similar words in other languages. Examples: English: Night, French: nuit, German: Nacht,
Spanish: noche, Sanskrit: Nakti. The Hebrew word Shalom and the Arabic word Salaam come from the same Semitic
word meaning peace.
86. coherence: A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole
may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence: and sentences, paragraphs,
6
and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for
coherence.
87. collective noun: a singular noun that represents many members or parts as a whole: team, group, company
88. colloquial/colloquialism: The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal
writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or
regional dialects.
89. comedy: literature with a love story at its core. In comedy, human errors or problems may appear humorous. Usually
comedies are defined by their “happy” endings. Comedy types are “dark (black),” comedy of manners.
90. comma: a punctuation mark used to set off introductory material, connect independent clauses, separate items in a
series, connect dependent clauses to independent clauses, and to separate items in a series and for other purposes.
91. comma splice/comma fault: a punctuation error in which two independent clauses are joined by a comma with no
coordinating conjunction.
92. common gender: a term applied to words that can refer to either sex (parent, teacher, people).
93. comparative degree: the form of an adjective or adverb that indicates relative quality, quantity, or manner. The three
degrees are positive, comparative—between two elements—better, worse; and superlative, among three or more
elements—best/least.
94. compare/contrast: a rhetorical strategy / mode that writers and speakers use to show similarities and differences.
95. complement: a word or words used to complete the sense of a verb. Although the term may refer to a direct or an
indirect object, it usually y refers to a subject complement, an object complement, or the complement of a verbal like
be.
96. complete predicate: a simple predicate (verb or verb phrase) with any objects, complements, or modifiers.
97. complete subject: a simple subject (noun or noun clause) with any modifiers.
98. complex sentence: a sentence with one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. OR a sentence
containing one independent clause and at least one subordinator clause.
99. compound predicate: two or more predicates having the same subject.
100.
compound sentence: a sentence with two or more independent clauses.
101.
compound subject: two or more subjects of the same verb.
102. compound-complex sentence: a sentence with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
103. conceit: a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between
seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being
made.
104. conclusion: the close of an essay, which should bring the writer’s point home in a few sentences or a paragraph.
Good conclusions do more than repeat a thesis, but they may refer to facts, ideas, and even the opening anecdote.
105.
concrete noun: words that refer to things that can be experienced through the five senses.
106. conditional clause: an adverb clause (beginning with subject conjunctions as if, unless, whether, provided)
expressing a real, imagined, or nonfactual condition.
107.
confessional Poetry: Poetry of the personal or "I." (“Daddy” by Sylvia Plath).
108.
conflict: the problem or struggle in a story that triggers the action. There are five basic types of conflict:
a. person vs. person: One character in a story has a problem with one or more of the other characters
b. person vs. society: a character has a problem with some element of society: the school, the law, the
accepted, tradition, or conventional way of doing things.
c. person vs. self: a character has a problem deciding what to do in a certain situation.
7
d. person vs. nature: a character has a problem with some natural happening (weather, terrain).
e. person vs. fate or God: a character must battle what seems to be an uncontrollable problem
109.
conjugation: a set or table of the inflected forms of a verb that indicate tense, person, number voice, and mood.
110. conjunction: a word or phrase that joins words, phrases, clauses, ideas. Three types of conjunctions grace the
English language:
a. coordinating: to join two words, phrases, or clauses;
b. correlative: a pair of “connectives,” or linked conjunctions that join words, phrases, or clauses, and
c. subordinating conjunctions: a word or short phrase that connects a dependent (or subordinate) clause to
an independent clause. The subordinating conjunction actually does the job of subordinating the clause.
111. conjunctive adverb: an adverb that is used to join two independent clauses. A semicolon or period in most cases
comes before a conjunctive adverb, and a comma is placed after the conjunctive adverb.
112. connotation: the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may
involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
113. concession: An argumentative strategy by which a speaker or writer acknowledges the validity of an opponent's
point.
114.
consonance: the repetition of the final consonant sounds in stressed syllables.
115. context: in writing, context implies the circumstance in which an event occurs. To put writing in context means to
examine it in relation the circumstances present at the time of its composition or to examine it in light of the events
relevant to its subject or topic. Context may also be used to indicate the placement of a par within a larger setting. For
example, a word in context refers to the meaning of the word in a particular sentence, paragraph, or text. Also called
“milieu” in literary analysis or historical documents, meaning the surroundings or environment that somebody lives
in and is influenced by
116.
contraction: joining of two words with an apostrophe used to signify the dropping of a letter or letters.
117. controlling idea: an idea that provides the common thread that ties a text together. A controlling idea may be
expressed as a thesis, as a topic sentence, or as an extended metaphor or image.
118. convention: an established technique or device in literature of any type. Deus ex machine is a common
convention in Greek and Roman drama (a seemingly simple or easy solution to a conflict that comes as a surprise).
Paragraphing is a common convention in non-fiction writing, for example.
119. count/non-count nouns: common nouns that have singular and plural forms are called count nouns: cookie,
cookies, book, books. Non-count nouns have only one form: furniture, bacon, milk.
120. couplet: a pair of rhymed lines in poetry. Shakespeare’s sonnets are famous for their couplets. For example, these
from A. E. Houseman’s “Terence, This is Stupid Stuff”: Why, if ‘tis dancing you would be / There’s brisker pipes
than poetry.
121.
credibility: the reliability of a person or evidence or source.
122. critique: an assessment or analysis of something, such as a passage of writing, for the purpose of determining
what the piece of writing is, what its limitations are, and how it conforms to the standard of the genre.
123. critical thinking/reading/writing: the ability to analyze and synthesize ideas: to distinguish between fact and
opinion, to recognize the importance of evidence and logic, to evaluate for credibility, and to avoid common
fallacies.
124. cumulative sentence: an independent clause followed by a series of subordinate constructions (phrases or
clauses) that gather details about a person, place, event, or idea. See also: periodic sentence.
125.
dangling modifier: a word or phrase that does not clearly refer to another word or word group in the sentence.
126. dash: a punctuation mark used to indicate a pause, much as a comma does; however, the dash represents a longer
pause, perhaps also that “important information lies ahead,” to place emphasis on the words that follow.
8
127. deductive reasoning: reasoning that begins with a general principle and concludes with a specific instance that
demonstrates that general principle. Deductive reasoning leads from general ideas to the specific examples. The
general ideas in deductive reasoning are found in premises. Valid deductive reasoning needs at least two of these
premises: a major premise, which states a general idea, and a minor premise, which states a more specific idea or
fact. From these two premises, a conclusion about a specific example is drawn.
128. definition: explanation of the nature of a word, thing, or idea. Definition attempts to make us understand
something we already knew—in a novel or new way. When Nancy Mairs discusses “being a cripple,” she is using a
label others try not to use, and she redefines what it means.
129.
degree: the form of an adverb or adjective hat indicates relative quality, quantity, or manner.
130. demonstratives: four words (this, that, these, those) commonly thought of as pronouns, that distinguish one
person, place, thing, idea, or event from another.
131.
denotation: the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.
132.
denouement: the final solution, resolution, or outcome of a narrative, play, or story.
133. description: depiction through sensory evidence. Description is not just visual: it uses details of touch, smell,
taste, and hearing. These concrete details can support a specific argument, give the reader a sense of immediacy, or
establish a mood. Description, while tied to the concrete, can also use metaphor, as when Richard Rodriguez writes
“At one point his words slid together to form one word—sounds as confused as the threads of blue and green oil in
the puddle next to my shoes.”
134. detail: writing teachers often praise students for using a technique called “detail" to lend support to a claim made
in an essay. Since much writing consists of a series of supported claims, learning to employ detail can greatly help
writers make points effectively. Consider this example, from a research essay, in which the writer explores the use of
TV cameras in courtrooms. In this section, Pattie explores how television coverage of trials emphasizes entertainment
and sensationalism:
The media is in tune with the public's desire for information and entertainment because broadcasters are for-profit
entities. To meet public demand for entertainment and information, "real" courtroom dramas, and legal analysis
shows have joined the line-up of fictional, legal programming. Court TV was created in 1990 by Steven Brill . . . .
After the 1997 buyout of Brill, investigative reports, detective shows and legal dramas, such as Perry Mason,
replaced the nightly, educationally designed, legal commentary, while the daytime gavel-to-gavel coverage of
trials remained the same. A perceived downside with the changes in Court TV's broadcasting schedule is that they
are now no different from the average entertainment broadcasting station. In Allison Romano's interview with
CEO Henry Schleiff, he openly admits that the bottom line profit is the driving force behind the Court TV changes
toward entertainment (33).
The paragraph begins with a strong claim and a clear topic sentence that presents it. The first text in italics then
shows how the writer supports her claim that Court TV has become as entertainment-oriented as other broadcasters.
Next, the second example shows the writer turning to a source, without weakening her argument with an unneeded
and lengthy direct quotation. Both examples use succinct, hard-to-refute details. As a result, the writer's argument
and analysis become more convincing.
135. determiner: a type of adjective that includes articles and demonstrative pronouns to modify a noun or noun
phrase in order to identify or classify the noun.
136. development: the elaboration of an idea through organized discussion filled with examples, details, and other
information.
137. deus ex machina: (God From The Machine):An unrealistic or unexpected intervention to rescue the protagonists
or resolve the story's conflict
138. dialect: the language and speech idiosyncrasies of a specific area, region, or group. For example, Dakotans might
say “you betcha” when they agree with you, and Georgians might say “y’all” when speaking to a group. Dialects are
evident in speech from a different era, culture, or region.
139.
dialogue: the conversation carried by characters in a literary work.
9
140. diction: related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness,
clearness, or effectiveness. You should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal,
ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined
with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. The type of diction of a story told
from the point of view of an inner-city child (see Toni Cade Bambara’s “The Lesson”) will differ markedly and
dramatically from a similar story told from the point of view of a cosmopolitan lawyer (as in Herman Melville’s
“Bartleby the Scrivener”). (Types of diction: Archaic words, colloquialisms, jargon, profanity, slang, trite
expressions, vulgarity.)
141. didactic: from the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or
instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. Designed to teach an ethical, moral, or religious
lesson. The lesson can be overtly religious, as in the case of sermons or in literature like Milton's Paradise Lost,
which seeks to "justify God's ways to men."
142.
direct address: a name or descriptive term (set off of commas) designating the one or ones spoken to.
143.
direct object: a noun or noun clause naming whom or what after a transitive active verb.
144.
direct quotation: a repetition of the exact spoken or written words of others.
145. discourse: a serious and lengthy speech or piece of writing about a topic OR a serious discussion about
something between people or groups. Also could refer to language, especially the type of language used in a
particular context or subject or a unit of language, especially spoken language, that is longer than the sentence.
146. division: the separation of something into parts. Connected to “classification.” Classification and division are
used when a writer wants to break something down into its elements or group a number of things in order to analyze
them.
147.
documentation: the citing of sources in a researched paper that conforms to a given style, such as MLA or APA.
148.
double negative: the nonstandard combination of two negatives, which has a negative meaning.
149. draft: an unfinished essay that has not been completely revised, edited, and proofread. When still in the drafting
stage, writers can rethink not only the structure of the essay but the ideas as well.
150. drama: the form/genre/type of literature known as plays. However, drama also refers to the type of serious play
that is often concerned with the leading character’s relationship to society.
151. dramatic monologue: a type of poem in which the speaker addresses another person or persons whose presence
is known only from the speaker’s words. During the course of the monologue, the speaker (often unintentionally)
reveals his or her own character. Such poems are dramatic because the speaker interacts with the character at a
specific time and place; they are monologues because the entire poem is uttered by the speaker. Robert Browning is
famous for his dramatic monologues; for example—“My Last Duchess.”
152. editing: a part of the writing process, concerned chiefly with improving the clarity, organization, concision, and
correctness of expression relative to task, purpose, and audience; compared to revising, a smaller-scale activity often
associated with surface aspects of a text. See also revising, rewriting.
153. elegy: A mournful, contemplative lyric poem written to commemorate someone who is dead, often ending in a
consolation.
154. ellipsis: omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader. Adjective: elliptical or
elliptic. Also: One of three equally spaced points (. . .) used in writing or printing to indicate the omission of words.
Plural, ellipses.
155. emphasis: special weight or importance given to a word, sentence, or paragraph. To engage: to pique and
maintain the interest of the reader throughout the reading of a text.
156.
encomium: A tribute or eulogy in prose or verse glorifying people, objects, ideas, or events.
157.
engage: to pique and maintain the interest of the reader throughout the reading of a text.
158.
enjambment: In poetry, when one line ends without a pause and continues into the next line for its meaning.
10
159. epanalepsis: Repeating a word from the beginning of a clause or phrase at the end of the same clause or phrase.
"Year chases year."
160. epic: a long narrative poem, usually divided into books or parts. Epics tell of extraordinary feats of legendary
heroes in mythical or magical places.
161. epigraph: A phrase, quotation, or poem that is set at the beginning of a document or component. The epigraph
may serve as a preface, as a summary, as a counter-example, or to link the work to a wider literary canon, either to
invite comparison or to enlist a conventional context.
162. epigram: (1) An inscription in verse or prose on a building, tomb, or coin. (2) a short verse or motto appearing at
the beginning of a longer poem or the title page of a novel, at the heading of a new section or paragraph of an essay
or other literary work to establish mood or raise thematic concerns. (3) A short, humorous poem, often written in
couplets, that makes a satiric point.
163. epistrophe: Repetition of a concluding word or word endings. When the epistrophe focuses on sounds rather than
entire words, we normally call it rhyme. Also known as epiphora.
164. epiphany: In fiction, when a character suddenly experiences a deep realization about himself or herself; a truth
which is grasped in an ordinary rather than a melodramatic moment.
165. epistolary novel: Any novel that takes the form of a series of letters--written either by one character or by several
characters. The form allows an author to dispense with an omniscient point of view, but still switch between the
viewpoints of several characters during the narrative
166. epithet: when characters talk about each other by describing them poetically (for example, in an epic). For
example, Homer, in The Iliad, describes Atreus as a “king of men.” A short, poetic nickname--often in the form of an
adjective or adjectival phrase--attached to the normal name.
167. epitaph: (1) A short inscription in prose or verse on a tombstone or monument. (2) A statement or speech
commemorating someone who has died: a funeral oration.
168. essay: A short piece of writing, often written from an author's personal point of view. The basic types of essays, if
classified, are as follows:

ARGUMENTATIVE: uses persuasive writing with the objective of winning over the audience to your side.

DESCRIPTIVE: describes an event or story. Focuses on details and descriptions

EXPOSITION: the purpose is to inform, explain, describe or define

NARRATIVE: Tells a story
169. essential question: a question broad in scope and timeless by nature. EQ’s refer to core ideas and inquiries within
a discipline. They point to the core of big ideas in a subject and to the frontiers of technical knowledge. They are
historically important and alive in the field of inquiry to which they belong. EQ’s help students inquire and make
sense of important but complicated ideas, knowledge, and know-how—a bridge to findings that experts may believe
are settled but learners do not yet grasp or see as valuable. Essential questions will most engage a specific and diverse
set of learners. They hook and hold the attention of your students (Wiggins and McTighe). Examples: Must a story
have a beginning, middle, and end? Do we always mean what we say and say what we mean?
170.
ethos: the author's ability to reveal his or her credibility, expertise, or goodwill in the text.
171.
etymology: the origin and historical development of a word, its derivation.
172.
eulogy: A formal expression of praise for someone who has recently died.
173.
euphony: Language that is smooth and musically pleasant to the ear. Opposite of Cacophony
174. euphemism: from the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for
a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political
correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of
euphemism.
11
175. evaluation: the process of finding and judging useful passages from source material. Also the act of considering
or examining something in order to judge its value, quality, importance, extent, or condition; or a spoken or written
statement of the value, quality, importance, extent, or condition of something.
176. evidence: the idea (facts, statistics, figures, detail, quotations, or other sources of data and information) that
support an argument. Evidence takes difference forms depending on the kind of writing in which it appears, but it is
generally concrete, agreed-upon information that can be pointed to as example or proof. When writer Vicki Hearn, in
the essay “What’s Wrong with Animal Rights?” argues against animal rights advocates by pointing to things she
learned as an animal trainer; she is using her experience as evidence. (See also detail)
177.
example: any fact, anecdote, reference, or the like used to illustrate an idea.
178.
exigence: something that a situation demands. In writing/rhetoric, the first decision a writer makes.
179. expletive: a signal of a transformation in the structure of a sentence that occurs without changing the meaning.
The expletive there shifts the order of subject and verb in a sentence. The expletive it transforms the main clause into
a subordinate clause.
180. explication: A relatively short analysis which describes the possible meanings and relationships of the words,
images, and other small units that make up a poem. • Who is the speaker? • What is the structure of the poem? Two
of the most important features to note here are stanza and meter form. • Does the poem fall into an identifiable
subgenre—for example; is it a sonnet, ballad, haiku, or dramatic monologue? • What, primarily, is the poem about,
and how do you know that?
181. exposition: in essays, one of the four chief types of composition. the others being argumentation, description, and
narration. The purpose of exposition is to explain something. In drama, the exposition is the introductory material,
which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict.
182. expository discourse/writing: the elements of expository discourse include audience, purpose, structure or form,
and speaker or voice.
183.
expressive discourse/writing: writing that emphasized the writer’s own feelings and reactions to a topic.
184.
extended metaphor: a metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
185.
fable: A brief story illustrating human tendencies through animal characters. Usually illustrates a moral lesson.
186. fact: a provable statement. A type of evidence. Any piece of information that can be verified through more than
one independence source or procedure.
187. fallacy: a logical fallacy is an error in reasoning. Logical fallacies can occur with both inductive (see 103) and
deductive (see 69) arguments.
188. farce: A form of humor based on exaggerated, improbable incongruities. Farce involves rapid shifts in action and
emotion, as well as slapstick comedy and extravagant dialogue.
189.
faulty predication: the use of a predicate that does not logically belong with a given subject.
190. fiction: an imagined story, whether in prose, poetry, or drama. Ibsen's Nora is fictional, a "make-believe"
character in a play, as are Hamlet and Othello. Characters like Robert Browning's Duke and Duchess from his poem
"My Last Duchess" are fictional as well, though they may be based on actual historical individuals. And, of course,
characters in stories and novels are fictional, though they, too, may be based, in some way, on real people. The
important thing to remember is that writers embellish and embroider and alter actual life when they use real life as
the basis for their work. They fictionalize facts, and deviate from real-life situations as they "make things up."
191. figurative language: writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be
imaginative and vivid. A deviation from what speakers of a language understand as the ordinary or standard use of
words in order to achieve some special meaning or effect. (See also literal language.)
192. figure of speech: a device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of
speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile,
synecdoche, and understatement.
193. flashback: an interruption of a work's chronology to describe or present an incident that occurred prior to the
main time frame of a work's action. Writers use flashbacks to complicate the sense of chronology in the plot of their
12
works and to convey the richness of the experience of human time. Faulkner's story "A Rose for Emily" includes
flashbacks.
194. flow: when ideas “flow” in an essay, speech, or narrative, they are presented in a fluent, seamless, logical, and/or
meaningful way without any distractions or interruptions that impede the reader.
195. focus: in writing or speaking, to sustain attention on the purpose and/or controlling idea of the piece by
consistently connecting the various parts of the piece to that purpose/controlling idea.
196. focused question: a query narrowly tailored to task, purpose, and audience, as in a research query that is
sufficiently precise to allow a student to achieve adequate specificity and depth within the time and format
constraints of an assignment.
197. foil: a character who contrasts and parallels the main character in a play or story. Laertes, in Hamlet, is a foil for
the main character; in Othello, Emilia and Bianca are foils for Desdemona.
198. foreshadowing: hints of what is to come in the action of a play or a story. Ibsen's A Doll's House includes
foreshadowing as does Synge's play Riders to the Sea. So, too, do short stories such as Poe's "Cask of Amontillado"
and Chopin's "Story of an Hour."
199. form: (1) to place in order; arrange; organize. (2) external appearance of a clearly defined area, as distinguished
from color or material; configuration. (3) the shape of a thing or person. (4)
something that gives or determines shape; a mold. (5) to construct or frame. (6) to make or produce. (7) to
compose; constitute. (8) to frame (ideas, opinions, etc.) in the mind.
200. formal English: writing and speaking that follows all of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage
(see “conventions”).
201. fragment: a group of words beginning with a capital letter and ending with a period that forms only part of a
sentence. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and must express a complete thought. The most common
types of fragments are as follows:
a. Dependent word fragments
b. –ing and to fragments
c. Added detail fragments
d. Missing subject fragments
202. free verse: poetry, usually unrhymed, that does not adhere to the metrical regularity of traditional verse. Although
free verse is not metrically regular, it is nonetheless clearly more rhythmic than prose and makes use of other aspects
of poetic discourse—such as alliteration, assonance, parallelism, etc., to achieve its effects.
203. free writing: a method of finding a writing topic by composing for a specified length of time without stopping to
reflect, re-read, or correct errors.
204. frequently confused words: or “words misspelled correctly.” Words that when spoken sound the same or very
similar but when spelled are incorrect forms. (to, too, too).
205. fused sentence: two or more sentenced run together, with no punctuation or conjunctions to separate them. Also
called run-on sentence. Considered an error in syntax and therefore unacceptable in formal writing.
206. generic conventions: this term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre;
for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. Try to
distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.
207. generalization: a general statement, idea, or principle. Many times generalizations are vague or indefinite
statements. In generalization, writers use adverbs of frequency like always, often, and usually and adjectives like
most, all, and every.
208. genre: the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and
drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called
genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays,
13
biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, sonnet, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can
be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.
209. gerund: a verbal (verb form which is not the main verb) which can function as any noun form in the sentence,
from subject to object of a preposition.
210. grammar: simply put, grammar is the name for the parts of speech, their order in a sentence, and how they are
used in a sentence.
211. grotesque characters: characters usually considered grotesque if they induce both empathy and disgust The
physically deformed, like the Phantom in Phantom of the Opera and the Beast in Beauty and the Beast.
212. homily: this term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture
involving moral or spiritual advice.
213. hubris: Excessive pride or self-confidence that leads a protagonist to disregard a divine warning or to violate an
important moral law.
214. hyperbole: a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic
effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony.
215. hypotactic clauses: Clauses with a precise degree of subordination and clear indication of the logical relationship
between them: i.e., having subordinating and coordinating conjunctions.
216.
idiom: a common expression (in a particular language) that has a figurative or imaginative meaning.
217. imagery: the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.
On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or
olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For
example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or
symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use
complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In
addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work.
218. impressionism: 19th and 20th century. Impressionistic literature can be defined as when an author centers his
story/attention on the character's mental life such as the character's impressions, feelings, sensations and emotions,
rather than trying to interpret them. Authors such as Virginia Woolf (Mrs. Dalloway) and Joseph Conrad (Heart of
Darkness and "The Lagoon") are among the foremost creators of the type. These novels have been said to be the
finest examples of a genre which is not easily comprehensible. The term is used to describe a work of literature
characterized by the selection of a few details to convey the sense impressions left by an incident or scene. This style
of writing occurs when characters, scenes, or actions are portrayed from a subjective point of view of reality.
219. inductive reasoning: reasoning that begins by citing a number of specific instances or examples and then shows
how collectively they constitute a general principle. Inductive reasoning occurs when we make observations about
life around us, combine these observations with what we already know and reach a conclusion. Another way of
expressing the process of inductive reasoning is that it moves from the specific (observation and prior knowledge) to
the general (general conclusion).
220. inference/infer: to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When someone asks for an
inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer. If an inference
is implausible, it’s unlikely to be correct. Note that if the answer is directly stated, it is not inferred and is wrong.
You must be careful to note the connotation--negative or positive--of the words used.
221. Infinitive: the basic verb form of Romance and Germanic languages. Also, a verbal (verb form which is not the
main verb)--usually preceded by the particle to--that can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
222. Informational text: any non-fiction text, whether a website or a Mark Twain essay. The genre can include memoir,
biography, and autobiography. Print texts such as magazines or academic journals are good sources of informational
text, as in literary criticism. Instructions, directions, recipes, and other types of informational texts can also be
instructive.
223. integrate: in any researched and/or documented essay: quoted, paraphrased, and/or summarized words of others
that will be incorporated into the writer’s own text. To do this smoothly, writers should seamless blend or weave
14
their own words with those of others. This is the integration of quotations and citations. If quotations, etc., are
integrated, not quotation will stand alone as a sentence. For example: In The Greatest Glossaries Ever Known, John
Smith asserts that “all good glossaries are written in alphabetical order” (72). Here the words of John Smith—those
within the quotation marks—are introduced by the writer’s own words. The citation for the john smith resource—The
Greatest Glossaries Ever Known—is integrated into the text, with the specific page number cited in parentheses at
the end of the sentence.
224. introduction: the beginning of an essay; it should generally state a writer’s main point. An introduction can
include a thesis statement and can even begin to develop the thesis, but it can also simply pose a question, the answer
to which will be the essay’s thesis. It can also begin with a story/anecdote, out of which the thesis will develop.
“William F. Buckley, Jr.’s “Why Don’t We Complain?” is a good example of an anecdotal introduction.
225.
invective: an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
226. irony/ironic: implying the opposite of the standard meaning, such as describing a bad situation as "good times."
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be
and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In verbal irony, the
words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out
the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen.
(3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader,
audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it’s used to create
poignancy or humor.
227.
isocolon: A succession of phrases of approximately equal length and corresponding structure.
228.
italics : italicizing functions in the same way underlining works. The titles of larger words are italicized.
229.
jargon : the specialized vocabulary of a particular group.
230. juxtaposition : The location of one thing adjacent to another to cause an effect, reveal an attitude, or make a
point.
231.
language : a system of spoken or written communication.
232. literal language : A form of language in which writers and speakers mean exactly what their words denote. See
also figurative language, denotation, and connotation.
233. literary canon: Refers to a group of literary works that are considered the most important of a particular time,
period, or place.
234. litotes: A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its
opposite.
235. local color: Fiction and poetry focusing on characters, dialects, customs, and geography particular to a specific
region
236. logic : The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic concerns the
structure of statements and arguments. Logic is also commonly used today in argumentation theory. As a discipline,
logic dates back to Aristotle, who established its fundamental place in philosophy.
237. logical argument, classical : Classical arguments derive from Greek and Roman philosophers and include three
types of appeals: emotional appeal, or pathos—appeal to the emotions of the audience; logical appeal, or logos—
appeal to reason; and ethical appeal, or ethos—the character or expertise of the speaker.
238. logical argument, contemporary : Contemporary arguments may employ strategies and appeals beyond the
three that characterize classical argument. These may include, but are not limited to, argument by definition,
induction, inference, and analogy.
239. logical fallacy : Refers to the flaw in the structure of an argument that renders the argument invalid. The term is
also used to mean any argument that is faulty or problematic.
240.
logos : The author's ability to reveal logic and reason in the text.
241. loose sentence : A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by
dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent
15
clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal,
relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style.
242. lyric poem : A type of poem characterized by brevity, compression, and the expression of feeling. Most of the
poems in this book are lyrics. The anonymous "Western Wind" epitomizes the genre:
Western wind, when will thou blow,
The small rain down can rain?
Christ, if my love were in my arms
And I in my bed again!
243. main idea : narrative and personal essays may require a main or controlling idea to help focus and direct a
writer’s composition.
244. marginalia : another word for anecdotal scripting, marginalia is a term for the notes that a writer scripts in the
margins of a text.
245. meme: a unit of cultural information, such as a cultural practice or idea, that is transmitted verbally or by repeated
action from one mind to another. Introduced by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in "The Selfish Gene"
(1976), coined by him from Greek. sources, e.g. mimeisthai "to imitate," and intended to echo gene.
246.
metacognition: knowledge about your own thinking: the thoughts and the factors that influence your thinking.
247. metaphor : a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for
the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought
provoking, and meaningful.
248. metaphysical conceit: metaphors have a much more purely abstract, and thus weak relationship between the
things being compared.
249. meter : recurrent patterns of accented and unaccented syllables in verse. A metrical unit is calla d foot, and there
are four basic accented patterns. An iamb, or iambic foot, consists of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented
syllable. A trochee (or trochaic foot), consists of an accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable. An
anapest, or anapestic foot, consists of two unaccented syllables followed by an accented syllable. A dactyl, or
dactylic foot, consists of a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. One common variant, consisting of
two stressed syllables, is called a spondee, or spondaic foot. Lines are classified according to the number of metrical
feet they contain, as follows:
One foot: monometer
Two feet: dimeter
Three feet: trimester
Four feet: tetrameter
Five feet: pentameter
Six feet: hexameter (an iambic hexameter line is an Alexandrine.
250. metonymy : a term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,’ metonymy is a figure of
speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release
that claims “the White House declared” rather that “the President declared” is using metonymy. The substituted term
generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
251.
modal auxiliary : helping verbs that are used to place a condition on a main verb.
252. modernism: 1900-1946. Content: dominant mood: alienation and disconnection; people unable to communicate
effectively; fear of eroding traditions and grief over loss of the past. Genre/Style: highly experimental; allusions in
writing often refer to classical Greek and Roman writings use of fragments, juxtaposition, interior monologue, and
stream of consciousness writers seeking to create a unique style. Historical Context: overwhelming technological
changes of the 20th Century World War I was the first war of mass destruction due to technological advances rise of
the youth culture.
253. modifier : a word or word group that describes, limits, or qualifies another. Errors in modifiers are dangling
modifiers, a dependent clause that comes at the beginning of a sentence but does not modify the subject that it
16
precedes; and misplaced modifiers, a modifier placed in an awkward position, usually far away from the word,
phrase, or clause it modifies so that it is unclear what it modifies.
254.
mood : this term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing.
a. The first meaning of mood is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker’s attitude. The indicative
mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, “Joe eats too quickly.” The conditional mood is used to
speak or write of an event whose occurrence depends on another condition. It generally uses the verb would
and is found in the independent clause of a sentence. The subjunctive mood occurs in the dependent (or
subordinate) clause of a sentence. The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For
example, “If I were you, I’d get another job.” The imperative mood is used for giving commands or making
requests. For example, “Shut the door!” The unstated or understood “you” is often the subject of the sentence.
The interrogative mood is used to ask questions.
b. The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work.
Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.
255. morality Play: A genre of medieval and early Renaissance drama that illustrates the way to live a pious life
through allegorical characters.
256. motif: A conspicuous recurring element, such as a type of incident, a device, a reference, or verbal formula,
which appears frequently in works of literature.
257.
mystery play: A religious play performed outdoors in the medieval period that enacts an event from the Bible.
258. narrative : the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. A narrative may be offered in
support of a thesis, claim, or point.
259. naturalism: (sub-genre of realism)1880-1900. Content: dominant themes: survival fate violence taboo nature is
an indifferent force acting on humans; "brute within" each individual is comprised of strong and warring emotions
such as Greed, power, and fight for survival in an amoral, indifferent world. Genre/Style: short story, novel;
characters usually lower class or lower middle class; fictional world is commonplace and unheroic; everyday life is a
dull round of daily existence; characters ultimately emerge to act heroically or adventurously with acts of violence,
passion, and/or bodily strength in a tragic ending Effect: this type of literature continues to capture audiences in
present day: the pitting of man against nature. Historical Context: writers reflect the ideas of Darwin (survival of the
fittest) and Karl Marx (how money and class structure control a nation)
260. nonfiction : nonfiction is one of the two main divisions in writing, particularly used in libraries, the other being
fiction. However, nonfiction need not be written text necessarily, since pictures and film can also purport to present a
factual account of a subject. An account or representation of a subject which is presented as fact. This presentation
may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is
generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. Note
that reporting the beliefs of others in a nonfiction format is not necessarily an endorsement of the ultimate veracity of
those beliefs; it is simply saying that it is true that people believe that (for such topics as mythology, religion).
Nonfiction can also be written about fiction, giving information about these other works.
261. noun : a word that identifies a person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun refers to any member of a class or
category. A proper noun refers to specific things, people, or places and are capitalized. A plural noun that does not
follow the conventional rules for becoming plural is called an irregular plural noun (mouse, mice).
262.
novella: An extended fictional prose narrative that is longer than a short story, but not quite as long as a novel.
263. object: part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It denotes somebody or something involved in the
subject's "performance" of the verb. It may also denote a relationship between ideas in a sentence. Generally, there
are direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
264. ode: A relatively lengthy lyric poem that often expresses lofty emotions in a dignified style. Odes are
characterized by a serious topic, such as truth, art, freedom, justice, or the meaning of life; their tone tends to be
formal.
265.
onomatopoeia: A word that resembles the sound it denotes.
17
266. organization: or essay order. Essays may be organized several ways…the most general order or organization
types are spatial, emphatic, and chronological.
267. oxymoron : from the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups
apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.”
268. parable: Story or short narrative designed to reveal allegorically/figuratively some religious principle, moral
lesson, psychological reality, or general truth.
269. paratactic sentence: Juxtaposing two clauses without any connecting conjunction. Paratactic: “They are silent;
that is praise enough."Instead of:
“They are silent; and that is praise enough."
270. paradox : a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer
inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
271. parallelism: also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots
meaning “beside one another.” It refers to :1.e grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or
paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element
such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens’s novel A Tale of
Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity The effects of parallelism are numerous, but
frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply
provide a musical rhythm.
272. parenthesis/parentheses: mark(s) of punctuation used to set aside numbers and letters or to add clarifying
information to that which they precede.
273. parody : a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or
ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the
work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original.
Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual
imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully
appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and do not
require knowledge of the original.
274. participle: a verbal (an –ing or –ed verb form which is not the main verb) which can function as an adjective. A
participial phrase is the participle and any modifiers, complements, or objects.
275. pastoral: An artistic composition dealing with the life of shepherds or with a simple, rural existence. Pastoral
describes the simplicity, charm, and serenity attributed to country life, or any literary convention that places kindly,
rural people in nature-centered activities.
276. pathos: the quality or power in an actual life experience or in literature, music, speech, or other forms of
expression, of evoking a feeling of pity or compassion. When a writer or speaker argues with emotion rather than
logic. Also called emotional appeal.
277. pedantic : an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or
bookish.
278. periodic sentence : a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent
clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: “Ecstatic with my SAT score, I let out
a loud, joyful shout.!” The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much
stronger sentence than the loose sentence. OR A long and frequently involved sentence, marked by suspended syntax,
in which the sense is not completed until the final word--usually with an emphatic climax.
279. periphrasis: Adding in superfluous words to extend the message you are trying to give - "beating around the
bush," so to speak.
280. personification : a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts. Animals, or inanimate
objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions,
animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
18
281. perspective : refers to the point from which a reader or writer views a particular subject or idea. For example,
looking at homework from the point of view of a student differs from the perspective of a teacher.
282.
persuasion : the changing of people’s minds or actions by the effective use of language. (See also rhetoric).
283.
phrase: a grammatical unit: a string of words that form a grammatical unit, usually within a clause or sentence
284. phoneme : a small unit of sound used in spoken words. Phonemic awareness is a skill in which a person can hear,
identify, and manipulate the parts of a word.
285.
plagiarism : using another person’s words or ideas in one’s own work, without acknowledgement.
286. plain Style: 1930s. An effort to eliminate overly complex language from academia, government, law, and
business. Clear, modern, unpretentious language carefully written to ease understanding. It is a reaction to the alleged
gobbledygook (aka Legal English) used by lawyers and others to impress or confuse rather than communicate. It
distinguishes gobbledygook (example 1) from useful jargon employed as a shorthand among those who understand it
In the 1930s, there was an outburst of making texts more readable.
287. plot : the unified structure of incidents in a literary work. Made up generally of exposition, conflict, rising action,
climax, and resolution/denouement. (See also conflict, climax, denouement, and flashback).
288. poem : words and meaning written or spoken in verse. Poem and poetry apply to a vast variety of literary forms,
both spoken and written.
289. point of view: in literature, the perspective from which a story is told, There are two general divisions of point of
view- and many subdivision within those. (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun,
“I” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist. a participant (character in a secondary role),
or an observer (a character who merely watches the action). (2) the third person narrator relates the events with the
third person pronouns, “he,” “she,’ and “it.” There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited
omniscient. In the “third person omniscient” point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the
thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and
thinks at any given moment. The “third person limited omniscient” point of view, as its name implies, presents the
feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters.
290. polysyndeton: the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses. Example: “I
said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said, ‘I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right,’ and it was dark and there
was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down
and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she
was all right only she was full of water.” Hemingway, “After the Storm”
291. possessive: the possessive form of a noun or pronoun shows ownership. Possessives are formed by adding an
apostrophe s.
292. predicate: in traditional grammar, a predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence (the other being the
subject, which the predicate modifies). For the simple sentence "John is yellow" John acts as the subject, and is
yellow acts as the predicate, a subsequent description of the subject headed with a verb.
293. predicate adjective: one type of subject complement--an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that
follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.
294. predicate nominative: a second type of subject complement --a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that
renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the
sentence.
295. preposition: a word or phrase that precedes a noun or pronoun and indicates a relation from that word to another
word or phrase in a sentence.
296. primary source: original records created at the In addition, if a writer is preparing an analysis of a literary text
such as a novel or poem, that literary text is a primary source. time historical events occurred or after events in the
19
form of memoirs and oral histories. Primary sources may include letters, manuscripts, diaries, journals, newspapers,
speeches, interviews, memoirs, documents produced by government agencies such as Congress, photographs,
audio/video recordings, and research data. May also include data or information acquired personally by the
researcher through surveys or interviews.
297. pronoun: A word that replaces a noun and stands for a person, place, thing, or idea. Pronoun cases are subjective,
objective, and possessive.
a. Personal pronouns are 1st, 2nd, 3rd person.
b. Subjective pronouns are pronouns that function as the subject of a sentence, replacing a noun.
c. Objective pronouns can be the direct or indirect object of the verb, object of the preposition.
d. Intensive/reflexive pronouns combine with personal pronouns to create a pronoun in which the antecedent
is referenced.
e. Other pronoun forms are reflexive, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, and relative.
f.
Relative pronouns (which, that, who, whom, whose) introduce a relative/dependent clause.
Errors in pronoun usage are case errors (objective or subjective—example who or whom), agreement of number or
person, indefinite pronouns, compound constructions, no possessive before a gerund.
298. propaganda: information that is widely spread for the sole purpose of promoting a specific cause, or damaging
another cause.
299. proposition : the act of offering or suggesting something to be considered, accepted, adopted, or done. In
rhetoric, a statement of the subject of an argument or a discourse, or of the course of action or essential idea to be
advocated. In logic, a statement in which something is affirmed or denied, so that it can therefore be significantly
characterized as either true or false.
300. prose : One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose
the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.
301. protagonist : Originally, the first actor in Greek drama. The protagonist is now known as the hero, or main
character, in a narrative, who is in conflict either with his or her situation or with another character. See also
antagonist.
302.
pun: A play on two words similar in sound but different in meaning, for humorous effect.
303. punctuation: the system of symbols or marks used to make writing or printing. Punctuation marks are symbols
that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when
reading aloud.
304. puritanism: literary movement: 1650-1750:content: errand into the wilderness be a city upon a hill Christian
utopia. Genre/Style: sermons, diaries personal narratives captivity narratives jeremiads written in plain style Effect:
instructive reinforces authority of the Bible and church. Historical Context: a person's fate is determined by God all
people are corrupt and must be saved by Christ
305. purpose: Writing for specific reasons—exigence (something that a situation demands)—perhaps to persuade, set
forth an argument, to explain or inform, to express feelings or convey emotions, or to entertain. Determining an
author’s intent or rhetorical purpose is essential in determining the meaning and/or the effect of an essay. (See also
rhetorical purpose.)
306.
quatrain: in music/poetry, a stanza of four lines.
307. quotation: The inclusion of the words of another in one’s own work, indicated by surrounding quotation marks.
Used to convey a sense of the person who wrote or spoke those words, or to reproduce a phrase or sentence or more
that perfectly captures some meaning the writer wishes to convey or to borrow some authority from an expert or
eyewitness.
308. rationalism: (Neoclassicism; Age of Reasoning) 1750-1800Content: national mission and American character;
democratic; utopia; use of reason history is an act of individual and national self-assertion. Genre/Style: political
pamphlets; travel writing; highly ornate writing style; fiction employs generic plots and characters fiction often tells
20
the story of how an innocent young woman is tested by a seductive male Effect: patriotism grows; instills pride;
creates common agreement about issues shows differences between Americans and Europeans. Historical Context:
tells readers how to interpret what they are reading to encourage Revolutionary War support; instructive in values.
309. realism: literary movement: 1855-1900: Content: common characters not idealized (immigrants, laborers)
people in society defined by class; society corrupted by materialism; emphasizes moralism through observation
Style: novel and short stories are important; prefers objective narrator; dialogue includes many voices from around
the country does not tell the reader how to interpret the story. Effect: social realism: aims to change a specific social
problem aesthetic realism: art that insists on detailing the world as one sees it. Historical Context: Civil War brings
demand for a "truer" type of literature that does not idealize people or places.
310. reasoning : "rhetorical reason" may be defined as the faculty of discovering the crux of the matter, an activity that
precedes argumentation.
311.
rebus: a mode of expressing words and phrases by using pictures of objects whose names resemble those words.
312.
redundancy: needless repetition, unless for rhetorical emphasis.
313.
reflection : Careful thought, especially the process of reconsidering previous actions, events, or decisions.
314. refrain: A line or set of lines at the end of a stanza or section of a longer poem or song--these lines repeat at
regular intervals in other stanzas or sections of the same work.
315. refute/refutation : An argument technique wherein opposing arguments are anticipated and countered.
The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view.
316. regionalism: literary movement of Post-Civil War Era and 19th century: Local-color writers depicted nearly
every region of the United States, lending realism to their stories by describing customs, manners and re-creating
dialects. Because these authors usually set their stories in regions as they remembered them from their own youth,
they often blended realism with nostalgic sentiment. This parallels the Regionalism in art. Many Americans found
this mixture palatable, and local-color stories filled the pages of the leading magazines until the end of the nineteenth
century.
317. repetition : The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word,
phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
318. revision : The stage or process of writing after a first draft is written when writers reexamine their work and try to
improve it. This improvement consists of more than editing and/or proofreading—it also includes reevaluating the
thesis, the argument, the structure, the organization, the supporting evidence, and even the topic. All good or
improving writers revise their work. See also editing, rewriting.
319. rewriting: a part of writing and preparing presentations that involves largely or wholly replacing a previous,
unsatisfactory effort with a new effort, better aligned to task, purpose, and audience, on the same or a similar topic or
theme; compared to revising, a larger-scale activity more akin to replacement than refinement. See also editing,
revising.
320. rhetoric : From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of speaking or writing
effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
321. rhetorical context : The situation that surrounds the act of writing. The main components of rhetorical context
are speaker (writer), purpose, audience, subject, and medium (or mode).
322. rhetorical devices : Words or phrases designed to create a particular effect in a story or drama or to evoke a
particular response from a reader, listener, or viewer. These strategies include but are not limited to rhetorical
questions, repetition, analogy, anecdote, paradox, irony, humor, and various figures of speech.
323. rhetorical modes : This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds
of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (I) The purpose of exposition
(or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and
appropriate discussion. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by
presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a
type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to
re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being
21
described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and
picturesque. Descriptive writing maybe straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The
purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the
tools of descriptive writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse.
324. rhetorical purpose: Writing for specific reasons—exigence (something that a situation demands)—perhaps to
persuade, set forth an argument, to explain or inform, to express feelings or convey emotions, or to entertain.
Determining an author’s intent or rhetorical purpose is essential in determining the meaning and/or the effect of an
essay.
325.
rhetorical question: A question to which no answer is expected, often used for rhetorical effect.
326. rhetorical situation : The convergence in a situation of exigency (the need to speak or write): audience, purpose,
tone, genre, medium, design.
327. rhyme: The matching of final vowel or consonant sounds in two or more words. The following stanza of
"Richard Cory" employs alternate rhyme, with the third line rhyming with the first and the fourth with the second:
Whenever Richard Cory went down town,
We people on the pavement looked at him;
He was a gentleman from sole to crown
Clean favored and imperially slim.
328. rhythm : The recurrence of accent or stress in lines of verse. In the following lines from "Same in Blues" by
Langston Hughes, the accented words and syllables are underlined:
I said to my baby,
Baby take it slow....
Lulu said to Leonard
I want a diamond ring
329. rigor: Intellectual rigor. Cognitive demand and complexity. Study of a subject in a comprehensive, thorough and
complete way, leaving no room for inconsistencies. the demands of thinking accurately and to the point. . Intellectual
rigour can be sometimes seen as the exercise of a skill. It can also degenerate into pedantry (noun for adjective
pedantic), which is intellectual rigour applied to no particular end, except perhaps self-importance Scholarship can be
defined as intellectual rigour applied to the quality control of information, which implies an appropriate standard of
accuracy, and skepticism applied to accepting anything on trust. It requires close attention to criteria for logical
consistency, as well as to all relevant evidence and possible differences of interpretation. Rigour in the classroom
consists of multi-faceted, challenging instruction and correct placement of the student. Rigor in the classroom is
commonly referred to as rigorous instruction. It is instruction that requires students to construct meaning for
themselves, impose structure on information, integrate individual skills into processes, operate within but at the outer
edge of their abilities, and apply what they learn in more than one context and to unpredictable situations.
330. rising action : A set of conflicts and crises that constitute the part of a play's or story's plot leading up to the
climax. See also climax, denouement, and plot.
331.
romanticism: 1800-1855:
 content: writing that can be interpreted 2 ways, on the surface for common folk or in depth for philosophical
readers; sense of idealism; focus on the individual's inner feelings emphasis on the imagination over reason
and intuition over facts urbanization versus nostalgia for nature; burden of the Puritan past.
 genre/style: literary tale; character sketch; slave narratives; political novels; poetry; transcendentalism
 effect: helps instill proper gender behavior for men and women; fuels the abolitionist movement; allow
people to re-imagine the American past
 historical Context: expansion of magazines, newspapers, and books publishing slavery debates
332. running style: Sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a problem through, mimicking the
"rambling, associative syntax of conversation"--the opposite of periodic sentence style.
333. sarcasm : From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,’ sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt
or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is,
intended to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it’s simply cruel.
22
334. satire : A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.
Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather
than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit,
parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the
writer’s goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
335.
scansion: The act of "scanning" a poem to determine its meter.
a. SPONDEE: a metrical foot consisting of two successive strong beats: football/Mayday/shortcake.
b. IAMB: A unit or foot of poetry that consists of a lightly stressed syllable followed by a heavily stressed
syllable: behold/ restore
c. DACTYL: A three-syllable foot consisting of a heavy stress and two light stresses: notable/
scorpion/tedious,
d. TROCHEE: A two-syllable unit or foot of poetry consisting of a heavy stress followed by a light stress.
Clever/ dental/ dinner
336. secondary sources : Sources that analyze, describe, explain, or restate information from primary sources.
Common reference materials such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, textbooks, books/articles in general are all
examples of secondary sources. If, for example, a writer is preparing an analysis of a literary text such as a novel or a
poem, the text (such as Night or MLK’s “I Have a Dream” speech) is the primary source and any books reviews,
website discussion, critical analysis about the text, or biographies of the author of that text are secondary sources.
337. semantics : The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological
development, their connotations, and theft relation to one another.
338. semicolon: a mark of punctuation used to join two independent clauses and to separate items in a series where
commas are already being used to define the items.
339. sentence: In the field of linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language, and often defined to indicate
a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that generally bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that
precede or follow it. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question,
exclamation, request or command. Interrogative, declarative, imperative, exclamatory are the labels for these
sentence types. Sentences are categorized by pattern also: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
340. sentence patterns: sentence patterns show the basic structures of sentences by the categories being, linking, and
action verb. They also may be classified as to the order of subject, verb, object, and complement. A third ways
sentences might be classified by pattern is simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
341. setting : The time and place of a literary work that establish its context. The stories of Sandra Cisneros are set in
the American southwest in the mid to late 20th century, while those of James Joyce are set in Dublin, Ireland, in the
early 20th century.
342. simile: phrase comparing something to something else. A phrase that describes something by comparing it to
something else using the word “like” or “as,” for example “He eats like a pig.”
343. slang : An informal, nonstandard variety of speech characterized by newly coined and rapidly changing words
and phrases.
344.
soliloquy: A monologue spoken by an actor at a point in the play when the character believes himself to be alone.
345.
sonnet: A lyric poem of fourteen lines with rhymes arranged according to certain definite patterns.
346.
source: a text of any format used largely for informational/research purposes.
347.
standard English grammar: the commonly accepted way in which words are properly arranged.
348.
standard English usage: the commonly accepted way in which words are implemented to convey meaning.
349. stereotype: A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the
assumption that there are attributes that members of the other group hold in common.
350. stream of consciousness: Writing in which a character's perceptions, thoughts, and memories are presented in an
apparently random form, without regard for logical sequence, chronology, or syntax
23
351. structure/structures: (1) the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of something complex.
(2) a building or other object constructed from several parts. (3) to construct or arrange according to a plan; give a
pattern or organization to.
352. style: The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in
blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that
we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author’s style). Compare, for
example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe
an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called
flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples.
(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such
classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such
as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist
movement.
353. style manual : A guide for formatting citations and for preparing documents and papers. A number of style
manuals are recognized and used by different groups for different purposes. Thos in languages often use the Modern
Language Association’s (MLA) style manual. Those in the social sciences such as education or psychology often use
the manual from the American Psychological Association.
354. subject: One of the two main constituents of a clause. The other constituent is the predicate. In English, subjects
govern agreement on the verb or auxiliary verb that carries the main tense of the sentence, as exemplified by the
difference in verb forms between he eats and they eat.
355. subject complement :The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clauses that follows a linking verb and
complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. The former is
technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective.
356. subordinate clause : Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying
phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not
express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause,
sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually
begin these clauses: for example: although, because, unless, (1 even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when,
where, how, and that.
357. support : In any researched and/or documented essay, quoted, paraphrased, and /or summarized words of others
will be incorporated into the writer’s own text. To do this smoothly, writers should seamlessly blend or integrate their
own words with those of others. This is the “weaving” of source and support material. In other words, if quotation,
etc., are integrated, no quotation will stand alone as a sentence. Also, in a text, the material offered to make concrete
or to back up a generalization, thesis, claim, or conclusion. See also “synthesis.”
358. surrealism movement:1920s: Literary and art movement influenced by Freudianism and dedicated to the
expression of imagination as revealed in dreams, free of the conscious control of reason and free of convention. The
movement was founded (1924) in Paris by André Breton. In literature, surrealism was confined almost exclusively to
France. Surrealist writers were interested in the associations and implications of words rather than their literal
meanings; their works are thus extraordinarily difficult to read. Among the leading surrealist writers were Louis
Aragon, Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos,
359. suspense The anxious anticipation of a reader or an audience as to the outcome of a story, especially concerning
the character or characters with whom sympathetic attachments are formed. Suspense helps to secure and sustain the
interest of the reader or audience throughout a work.
360.
syllepsis: use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently.
*We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately. Benjamin Franklin
361. syllogism : From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a
deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second, “minor”)
that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
major Premise: All men are mortal.
24
minor premise: Socrates is a man.
conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific
idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“All men”).
362. symbol/symbolism : Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is
something concrete--such as an object, action, character, or scene--that represents something more abstract.
However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories: (1)
Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn
symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional
symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of
David: national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or
the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are
found in a variety of works and are generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated as is
the whale in Moby Dick and the jungle in Heart of Darkness. Try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol
for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.
363. symbolism movement: Late 19th century: The symbolist movement began in France in the 1880s as a literary
phenomenon. Each manifestation of symbolism had its own distinct characteristics. For example, most Belgian
symbolists were more socially and politically engaged with working-class issues than their French counterparts,
while Russian symbolism linked spiritual, social, and national concerns. Many artists and writers who never would
have called themselves symbolists are considered under the rubric of symbolism because their work shares at least
some of the same interests as that produced by self-proclaimed symbolist artists.
364. synecdoche: Related to metonymy and metaphor, creates a play on words by referring to something with a related
concept: for example, referring to the whole with the name of a part, such as "hired hands" for workers; a part with
the name of the whole, such as "the law" for police officers; the general with the specific, such as "bread" for food;
the specific with the general, such as "cat" for a lion; or an object with the material it is made from, such as "bricks
and mortar" for a building. Also: A figure of speech in which a part signifies the whole, such as “50 masts”
representing 50 ships and “100 head of steer” representing 100 cattle.
365. syntactic fluency: The writer’s ability to create a variety of sentence structures and have sentence structure that is
easy to follow.
366. syntactic permutation: Sentence structures that are extraordinarily complex and involved. Often difficult for a
reader to follow.
367. syntax : The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to
diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the
individual words. ALSO: (1) The study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses, and
sentences. (2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.
368. synthesize : To combine parts into a more complex whole. For example, a writer might read a variety of
viewpoints and combine parts of a number of these viewpoints into a new and more complex personal view. Readers
analyze a text by looking at specific parts of that text—word choice, structure, figures of speech—then they
synthesize their analysis of these various parts to form an understanding or interpretation of the work as a whole.
369.
tag question: a question attached at the end of a related statement set off by a comma: She’s coming, isn’t she?
370. tall tale: A story that claims to explain the reason for some natural phenomenon, or sometimes illustrates how
skilled/intelligent/powerful the subject of the tale was. In either case, the tall tale is fictional and usually obviously
so. It can, however, be based on a real figure in history.
371. tautology: word or group of words that repeat the already-conveyed meaning. For example, “I can see it with my
own eyes,” asking for an ATM machine, and inquiring about a book’s ISBN number. Also, “With malice toward
none, with charity for all.” Lincoln, Second Inaugural.
372. technical documents : Includes all forms of business, professional, and technical communication. Some
examples include surveys and questionnaires, research studies, and proposals. Other documents might include letters
25
373. telegraphic sentence : A sentence that expresses a straightforward, no-frills idea or action. Telegraphic sentences
are very simple to write and read. Telegraphic sentences contain no unnecessary words. A sentence that expresses a
straightforward, no-frills idea or action. Telegraphic sentences are very simple to write and read. Telegraphic
sentences contain no unnecessary words.
374. tense: the form of the verb that denotes time. Inflection of single-word verbs (pay-paid) and the use of auxiliaries
(am is are was were, etc), indicate tense.
375. theme : The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional
works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing. Some
universal themes in literature are
a. selflessness / tolerance
e. coming of age (passage from innocence to
b. the quest / journey
experience)
c. good vs. evil
f. war and peace
d. struggle for individualism
g. search for identity
h. parent / child conflicts
376. thesis : In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the
author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately,
effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proved the thesis. ALSO: The main idea in a text, often the main
generalization, conclusion, or claim. An arguable thesis is a declarative statement that includes a topic plus a
judgment or opinion about that topic. A thesis sets up an assertion or claim that the writer then supports or proves
with supporting details, evidence, and reasoning. The thesis also provides the controlling idea for an essay. By its
very nature, a thesis is arguable because a writer has only reason to support or prove a statement if more than one
view or interpretation is possible.
377. tone : Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is
easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read
aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike,
sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.
378. topic sentence : A declarative statement that provides the controlling idea for a paragraph, and, consequently,
provides a supporting statement for the thesis of an essay. A topic sentence is arguable when it sets up an assertion or
claim that the writer then supports or proves with supporting details, evidence, and reasoning throughout the
paragraph.
379. tragedy : The dramatic representation of serious and important actions that culminate in catastrophe for the
protagonist, hero, or chief actor in a play or film. Aristotle saw tragedy as the fall of a noble figure from a high
position and happiness to defeat and misery as a result of harmartia, some misjudgment or frailty of character (fatal
flaw, perhaps).
380.
transcendentalism: about 1836 until 1860: 4 Basic Premises:
1. An individual is the spiritual center of the universe - and in an individual can be found the clue to nature,
history and, ultimately, the cosmos itself.
2. The structure of the universe literally duplicates the structure of the individual self - all knowledge, therefore,
begins with self-knowledge.
3. conception of nature as a living mystery, full of signs - nature is symbolic
4. The belief that individual virtue and happiness depend upon self-realization. To Puritanism it owed its
pervasive morality and the "doctrine of divine light.” In Unitarianism, deity was reduced to a kind of immanent
principle in every person - an individual was the true source of moral light. To Romanticism it owed the concept
of nature as a living mystery. among the leaders of the movement were Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David
Thoreau.
381.
tricolon: The repetition of a parallel grammatical construction three times for rhetorical effect.
382. transition : A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository
and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used
26
transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise,
similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.
383. trope : In linguistics, trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words, i.e., using a word in a
way other than what is considered its literal or normal form. The other major category of figures of speech is the
scheme, which involves changing the pattern of words in a sentence. The term trope derives from the ancient Greek
word τρόπος - tropos "turn, direction, way, related to the root of the verb τρέπειν (trepein), "to turn, to direct, to alter,
to change.” A trope is a way of turning a word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something else.
Types of tropes: metonymy, irony, metaphor, synecdoche, antanaclasis, allegory
384. understatement : The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is.
The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.
385. undertone : An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a
work may have threatening undertones. William Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper” from the Songs of Innocence has a
grim undertone.
386.
unity: The sense that all the elements in a piece of writing fit together to create a harmonious effect.
387. verb : A word or phrase that shows the reader what the subject is doing or the state of the subject. Verbs’
principle parts are present, past, present participle, past particle. Verbs have present, past, future, present perfect, past
perfect, and future perfect tenses. A verb phrase is comprised of an auxiliary verb or a modal auxiliary verb.
388. verbal: Verb forms that do not function as the main, or finite, verb in the sentence. Verbals (gerunds, infinitives,
participles) function as nouns (gerund or infinitive), adjectives (infinitives or participles), or adverbs (infinitives).
389.
versimilitude: The sense that what one reads is "real," or at least realistic and believable.
390. vernacular: The everyday or common language of a geographic area or the native language of commoners in a
country
391. verse – As does poetry, verse encompasses a variety of meanings. A few are as follows: a. a poem, or piece of
poetry. b. (not in technical use) a stanza. c. a succession of metrical feet written, printed, or orally composed as one
line. d. one of the lines of a poem. e. a particular type of metrical line: a hexameter verse. f. a particular type of
metrical composition: elegiac verse. g. the collective poetry of an author, period, nation, etc.: example--Miltonian
verse; American verse. h. one of the short conventional divisions of a chapter of the Bible.
392.
voice: two types of “voice” are discussed in the English language:
a. One “voice” is based on the verb in a sentence. Passive voice is the verb form “be” + a past tense verb. It
shows the condition of the subject being acted upon instead of acting. The sentence order is transposed,
with the subject being absent or couched in a phrase following the verb. Active voice is just the opposite:
it is the conventional sentence order, with the subject doing the action described by the finite verb.
b. The literary term used to describe the individual writing style of an author. Voice was generally
considered to be a combination of a writer's use of syntax, diction, punctuation, character development,
dialogue, etc., within a given body of text (or across several works). Voice can be thought of in terms of
the uniqueness of a musical voice. As a trumpet has a different voice than a tuba or a violin has a different
voice than a cello, so the words of one author have a different sound than the words of another.
393. wit : In modem usage, wit means intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is
humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually
uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its
meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean
quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick
perception.
394. writing process: The acts a writer goes through, often recursively, to complete a piece of writing: Inventing,
investigating, planning, drafting, consulting, revising, editing, proofreading.
395. zeugma: A grammatically correct construction in which a word, usually a verb or adjective, is applied to two or
more nouns without being repeated. Often used to comic effect (“the thief took my wallet and the Fifth Avenue
bus”).