Media Studies 120
The Four Key Concepts of Mass
Media and Popular Culture
(notes taken from `Mass Media & Popular Culture by Barry Duncan,
1988)
The 4 Key Concepts

In order for us to make sense of the
issues surrounding the media, we need a
framework or context to help us talk about
them. We then can use this common
language to discuss important issues. The
following principles or categories will
provide this framework. They are:
The 4 Key Concepts of Mass Media
1. The media construct reality.
 2. The media have their own forms, codes
and conventions.
 3. The media present ideologies and value
messages.
 4. The media are businesses that have
commercial interests which search for the
appropriate audience to sell to.

Key Principle #1: Construction of
Reality

When you are watching the news on TV, you are
watching the absolute facts.

Right? Well…
Let’s look at some facts:
 TV news programs always favour the visual aspects of a
story. This means showing pictures of fires, riots, &
accidents. What about the stuff that wasn’t shown?
 The normal ratio of footage shot to footage used is 20:1.
Who chooses the 1 out of 20 minutes of footage we see?

Construction of Reality

The point is, producers of media “construct”
their product to create a world exciting and
stimulating enough to keep audiences
interested. Many decisions must be made by a
producer to create this world we see in the
media. What we see may be factual, but is it the
“truth”?

Let’s look at an example that illustrates when it
isn’t…
Construction of Reality

The producers of The Wild Kingdom, a
popular nature program in the 1980’s,
decided that they wanted to show
wilderness areas inhabited by both wolves
and cougars. They also decided that the
footage shown would be much more
interesting if they could show a conflict
between the two animals. These two
predators normally avoid each in the wild.
They had a problem. Solution?
Construction of Reality

The producers used a cougar and a wolf bred in
captivity, brought them out to the wilderness
and then provoked them to fight. The producers
also decided to dub in more snarling and
growling than was recorded in the filming. Are
these facts the “truth”?

The TV news documentary show the fifth estate
investigated this story, and revealed that such
fakery is common in many nature programs.
Construction of Reality
Does this kind of manipulation or “construction”
of reality affect the way we see the world? Many
people who have preconceived notions that
nature is savage and ferocious likely will have
their beliefs reinforced. How have your beliefs
about the world we live in been affected by
believing the media’s representations of the
world? For example: how do you feel about
sharks?
 Watch this Dove commercial and comment on
how advertising affects our views of beauty.

http://youtube.com/watch?v=hibyAJOSW8U
Construction of Reality

Our job in this course is to examine the
way the media construct the world it
presents and “deconstruct” it so that we
can understand why it is constructed this
way, for whom it’s constructed, and how it
affects us and others.
Construction of Reality


Exercise #1: The Aliens Experience
A. We are going to watch a scene from the 1982 film Aliens, starring
Sigourney Weaver. Your assignment: after having imagined a large
and empty warehouse, imagine filling it with all the objects, people
and things you see in this scene.

In other words, you will “construct” the reality you see in this scene.
Make a list of every object you need to create what you see.

When your list is as complete as possible, answer these two
questions:
A. What was the purpose of the director in creating this scene?
B. Was the director successful in his goal?


Key Principle #2: Forms, Codes and
Conventions






Consider the following:
In a TV show, the camera moves in for a close-up on a
man and a woman, the lighting is dim, and the music
soft and low. What is the scene about?
In films such as the original Star Wars trilogy, or Disney’s
The Little Mermaid, what codes are used to tell the good
guys from the bad guys?
What is the usual setting for TV family sitcoms (situation
comedies)?
In the pop (popular) music industry, how do you tell the
difference between a hip-hop artist and a country music
star?
According to the ads, what kind of person drinks milk?
Forms, Codes & Conventions

In discussing & answering these
questions, you have identified some of the
codes or conventions used in the media.
These codes, or symbols, are ways
information is conveyed in the media, that
we understand without being aware of
them. A way of understanding these codes
is to think of them as cliches or even
stereotypes.
Forms, Codes & Conventions








The codes that are used in the media that we
understand but don’t necessarily notice include:
Camera angles
Sound
Lighting
Editing
Language
Design
These all are used to construct meaning. Being media
literate means being aware of these techniques and
understanding the effects they are intended to have.
Forms, Codes & Conventions

Another aspect to consider is that the
medium itself shapes the meaning of an
event in this invisible way as well, because
of its built-in conventions. For example,
TV’s coverage of a story will favour the
visual, the radio will use interviews and
sound, while the newspaper will feature
photos and interviews, as well as more
detailed information.
Forms, Codes & Conventions

Let’s look at an example of how the medium affects the message:

In 1960, while running for office, Richard Nixon and John F.
Kennedy took part in a presidential debate. Those who heard the
debate on radio were convinced Nixon had won. Those who
watched the debate on TV believed Kennedy was the clear winner.
Why the difference?
On TV, Nixon was sweating profusely and appeared uncomfortable,
while Kennedy was cool, calm and assured…..and better looking.
So?
More people watched the debate on TV than listened to it on the
radio….and Kennedy won the election. Many people believe U.S.
history would have been dramatically different had Nixon won the
vote.


http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm
Forms, Codes & Conventions
Canadian communications/media expert Marshall
McLuhan made important observations about
how the mass media create their messages. He
claimed that each medium codifies reality in a
unique way, that each has its own grammar and
bias.
 Because of this built-in bias, the nature of the
message differs in each medium we encounter.
This idea was summarized in his memorable
slogan:
 “The medium is the message.”

http://www.marshallmcluhan.com/main.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan
Forms, Codes and Conventions

Exercise #1: “Oh Father”

Carefully watch the Madonna video for the song “Oh
Father”.
After watching it, make a list of all the conventions that
are used to convey meaning about the song. Consider
that a whole counter-story is being told in the images of
the video which complement the song, and yet nothing
of the supporting story is explained in the lyrics.


For example:
Forms, Codes and Conventions






1. How many different meanings for the concept of “father” are
suggested in this video? Identify them.
2. What camera angles are used to make some characters small and
powerless, and others large and powerful?
3. How is the passage of time suggested?
4. What conventions are used to give the video an overall look of
loneliness, sadness or isolation?
5. How do we know there is freedom and reconciliation for the
protagonist at the conclusion of the counter-story?
6. Explain the symbolic use of: pearls; a bottle; a dove; of “dressing
up”; of an over-large door; of shadows; of a confessional; of makeup carefully applied.
Key Principle #3: Ideology and
Values
What is our ideology?
 It is our set of assumptions about the
world that shape the way we think and
feel about such issues as: the roles of men
and women; discipline in schools; and the
role of authority figures such as
government leaders and the police.
 This set of assumptions is what we use to
define personal happiness and morals.

Ideology & Values
A particular group of people may share an
ideology. For example, a church group may
share some common beliefs, and a gang of
bikers may have share a different set of beliefs.
 What idologies do the people who produce the
media have in common?
 And how do their ideologies shape the media
with which we are in almost constant contact?

Ideology & Values
When we receive a message through the media,
we interpret that message through our own set
of ideologies and values.
 If we agree with the message being presented,
this is called a “preferred” reading. In this case,
“preferred” does not mean better. It is an
expression of agreement with the value
presented.
 If we disagree with the message, we have given
it an “oppositional” reading.

Ideology & Values
For example: a picture of a scuffle between workers on a strike line and
management might be interpreted in two different ways.
 The dominant view might be that the behaviour shown is typical of strikers,
that they probably just want more money, and that the strike is
unwarranted. If we agree with this reading, then we have given the media’s
version a “preferred” reading.
 The “oppositional” view could be that the reason for strikes are often
misunderstood, there might be other reasons for the strike besides money,
and that perhaps management provoked the scuffle.

Question:
What is being covered in the media these days that is being given a spin
you agree or don’t agree with?
 How is the media presenting the government’s plan to “close” UNBSJ?
 How much media time is being given to how the change may improve
educational opportunities in Saint John?


Ideology & Values
Most value messages sent to us in the
media are almost invisible, because we’re
so used to the media’s messages we don’t
easily see them anymore.
For example: In advertising…
- With what are cars associated?
- With what kind of lifestyle is beer
associated?
- Who are concerned with clean clothes?
Ideology & Values
Two questions:
 Are the values presented in the last three
questions accurate?
 Do you agree with these value messages
presented by advertisers?

Ideology & Values
Recognizing the values presented by the media is an
important part of being media literate. When viewing or
listening to media, ask yourself the following questions
to help you get a clearer view of values presented:
1. Are the beliefs of a particular group being presented?
For example, did a man or a woman create what you
are seeing? What race was he or she?
2. Who is in a position of power? Who is not?
3. What stereotypes are being used?
4. What views of morality are being presented?
5. What is the medium saying will make you happy?
6. What is the medium’s view of virtue?
Ideology & Values

Exercise # 1: Ad Presentations on
Ideologies and Values
Break into groups of four.
 Choose an ad per person.
 Help each other develop responses for the
following:

Ideology & Values

1. Give the date and name of the magazine from
which you found the ad.

2. Now give a detailed, objective description of
each of your ad. (Imagine your audience is
blind).

3. On the surface, what does the ad promise or
offer? In other words, what is the product and
what claim, if any, does the ad maker make
about the product?
Ideology & Values
4. a. Answer this question: what will the product
do to make life easier, better or more exciting?
(look beyond the conventions associated with
the product; otherwise, it will make it more
difficult to analyze this)
 b. What method does the ad designer use to
make an emotional appeal? To what emotions is
the ad maker appealing?
 C. What assumptions about its audience’s needs
and desires is the ad designer making?

Ideology & Values

5. Do you give the ad a preferred or
oppositional reading? (Remember that this
is a response to the ideologies presented.)

6. Is the ad effective? Why or why not?

Make sure you follow ALL of the
directions and guidelines provided.
Ideology & Values

Exercise #2: The Ideology of Drug Use: Two Views

Watch the anti-drug abuse films Reefer Madness & Through a Blue
Lens.

Consider the following:
1. What is the intention of the film-makers with each of these films?
2. Are the film makers effective in their goal?
3. Are they equally effective? Explain.
4. How has the contemporary production of Reefer Madness
(specifically, the colorization choices made) changed the ideology of
the original film?
In your opinion, how factual is TaBL? How truthful is it?





Key Principle #4: Commercialism and
Audience
It is easy to believe that the media’s sole purpose are to
entertain and to inform us. We tend to believe that
access to the media is one of the privileges of living in
an industrialized, technological society.
 Not so.
 Our culture is based on consumerism. Mass media
provide goods and services that are marketable and
saleable.
 There is an enormous financial investment in popular
culture and mass media products. They are multi-billion
dollar businesses.
 And those businesses are looking for an audience that
will buy or consume these products.

Commercialism and Audience
Think of the television industry in this way:
1. TV programs provide sponsors with an
audience.
 2. Sponsors then are concerned with the size of
that audience and therefore the appeal and
ratings of that program.
 3. As the audience appeal of a program
increases, so does the cost of advertising for
that show.
 Question: Do any of these facts affect TV
programming?


Commercialism and Audience
In the music business:
 1. A music company’s financial success is
directly dependant on the number of plays
its product gets on radio.
 2. Music videos are 3 minute commercials
for a music product.
 3. A band’s tour almost always coincides
with a new music release.

Commercialism and Audience



A major concern for us, as aspiring media literate
people, is the issue of ownership of the media. In North
America, there is a concentration of ownership – most
small companies are now owned by huge corporations,
and there are only a small number of them.
Such monopolistic (single-ownership) tendencies can
result in conflicts of interests.
For example, if the same company or person owns the
local newspaper, radio station and TV station (which was
once the case in Saint John in the 60’s and 70’s when
corporate giant Irving owned all three), who in the
media will ever criticize or examine anything that owner
does?
Commercialism and Audience

Exercise #1: Let’s Count the Dollars

In groups of two, research the following and be prepared to give a
report to the class on at least two of the following:

1. The current-year cost of a 30 second Superbowl commercial
2. Sobey’s/Empire Theatre/Odeon Theatre connection/net worth
3. Oprah Winfrey’s annual income/net worth
4. What Proctor and Gamble owns/net worth/income
5. What Coca-Cola owns/net worth/income
6. What Sony owns/net worth/income
7. What Irving company/family owns/net worth






Commercialism & Audience










8. What Pepsi owns/net worth/income
9. Residuals for hit shows’ actors (Friends, Seinfeld)
10. Merchandise available for The Simpsons
11. The cost of producing a 30 minute sitcom
12. Salaries of soap opera actors
13. What Disney owns/net worth/income
14. McDonalds Restaurants net worth/ income
15. Annual sales/income of music industry
16. Annual income/net worth of a celebrity of your
choice (sports, music, actor)
17. Something of interest to you; clear it with me first.