Resistance
Adapted from J. Scott Armstrong
Updated October 2014
Resistance 34
1
Learning Diary
The lectures follow an experiential learning experience.
To make this work properly:
1.Obtain a learning diary (paper). A 10 x 13 bound diary
is suggested.
2.Keep it up to date.
3.Take the learning diary with you to all class sessions.
4.For self-learners, use the diary to track your learning
progress for all of your learning activities.
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Objectives of this session
To understand and apply these principles and
techniques (not to convince you). Ask for clarification as
needed.
Set a goal for yourself on how many principles and
techniques you plan to use by the end of this session.
Even a goal of one will help you. Put this in your learning
diary now.
Note: We will discuss only some of the slides. When you go
through the lecture on your own, view it in “Slide Show” and
follow the experiential procedures.
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Procedure
Focus on understanding.
Record questions in your learning diary that will help
you to apply the techniques or principles, then, after
you decide which ones you want to apply, try to
answer these from the readings. If not clear, ask
others for help.
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Resistance to messages
Males exposed to warnings about alcohol reported
higher drinking intentions than those not
exposed to warnings.
When warnings about violent programs were
provided by the U.S. Surgeon General, subjects
were more likely to watch violent programs
(Bushman & Stack 1996).
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.105 for evidence)
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Why do people resist changes in
attitudes and behavior?
1. Status quo: People come to their beliefs in what they
believe to be a rational manner. New arguments imply that
they are not rational. People want to defend their current
beliefs and behavior.
“If people don’t want to go to the picture, nobody can stop them."
Samuel Goldwyn, movie producer, 1940s
2. Logic: People differ in their use of “economic
rationality.”
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Dead Sea Scrolls Experiment
Researchers meeting with a church youth group explained (falsely) that
scrolls had been found near the Dead Sea. Scientific tests showed them
to be authentic correspondence among the apostles after Jesus Christ
had been crucified. This revealed that Christ was not God.
The members of the youth group were told that the New York Times, under
pressure from the World Council of Churches, was withholding the story.
The group was told that the reactions of people were being studied to
see what would happen if and when the New York Times released the
story.
What do you think happened to the beliefs of those who initially believed
that Christ was God, and who also believed that the evidence was
authentic? Did their belief that Christ was God
a. ____decrease, or
b. ____increase?
Explain in your learning diary.
Increased due to cognitive dissonance (paper)
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Prior beliefs
"A man with a conviction is a hard man to change. Tell him
you disagree and he turns away. Show him facts or
figures and he questions your sources. Appeal to logic
and he fails to see your point. We have all experienced
the futility of trying to change a strong conviction,
especially if the convinced person has some investment
in his belief. We are familiar with the variety of ingenious
defenses with which people protect their convictions,
managing to keep them unscathed through the most
devastating attacks.”
Leon Festinger 1956
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Logic (Economic rationality)
“Imagine that you are watching a bad movie for which you
have paid $5. If the movie had been free, you probably
would leave. What would an economist recommend that
you do?” The four possible responses ranged from:
1) ___ “Stay, although the movie is bad, because you have
already spent $5 on it. Otherwise, you are wasting your
money,” to
4) ___ “Leave because the movie is bad and the $5 does not
matter now.”
#4, which recognizes the sunk-cost fallacy, is the rational
response.
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.105 for evidence)
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People differ on economic rationality
Many people do not use economic rationality(Larrick ,
Nisbett & Morgan 1993) (paper)
Use of economic rationality is correlated with IQ. It
is also more common among males and younger
subjects.
One’s use of rationality depends also on the topic.
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To address resistance to change, consider
the issue of global warming for this session.
Assume that your agency was hired to convince the
undecided that global warming (GW) is not a threat.
Apply principles to deal with resistance to change.
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The French Connection
In the 1971 movie, The French
Connection, detective Popeye Doyle
questioned a suspect. When the suspect
said that he was from Poughkeepsie,
Popeye said,
“Do they pick their toes in
Poughkeepsie?”
Was there any purpose to that?
The detective threw odd questions to
“mess with their minds.”
Implications for advertising?
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.106 for evidence)
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Good ad?
Explain in your
learning diary:
Dove lotion
“Skin Fact No. 21: The smoke
from burning giraffe skin is used
to treat nosebleeds among some
tribes in Africa. These tribes
always travel with a spare giraffe
and a box of matches, in case
they bump into a tree. (Not
really: I made the last bit up.)”
[It then had a picture of Dove lotion and
closed with]:
“(Dove is all you need to know
about skincare.)”
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.106 for evidence)
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For low-involvement products that have
neither advantages nor disadvantages,
consider using distraction (5.1.1)
Evidence: Received wisdom; typical practice.
“If you can’t dazzle them with brilliance,
baffle them with nonsense.”
salesman's adage
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Exercise on attention
Passing the ball (1:42)
Application to advertising?
By directing people’s attention to a certain point in
an ad, other information is often overlooked.
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Another exercise on attention
Movie Perception Test (2:09) Watch and answer the
questions in the video in your learning diary.
What is the application to advertising? Write your
answer in your learning diary.
By directing people’s attention to a certain point in
an ad, other information is often overlooked.
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Distraction
Distraction is a popular adverting principle. When
well used it can be powerful, as illustrated by the
research.
This principle is also vital for magicians. But as with
magicians, this principle requires skill and practice,
as described in “A Pickpocket’s Tale” by Adam
Green” (article)
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Abolish fraternities
A 12-minute film showed a college professor arguing that
fraternities encouraged cheating, dishonesty, social
snobbishness, and racial discrimination -- as a result, they
should be abolished.
A second film used the same soundtrack superimposed on an
entertaining film about a different topic. Which film do you
think was more effective in changing the attitudes of
fraternity members
___ the straight film? Or ___ the one with distraction?
Explain in your learning diary.
The one with distraction because it reduced counter-arguing
(Festinger & Maccoby 1964). But attempts at replication often
failed. Why?
Need to get across message prior to distraction (Osterhouse &
Brock) (See Persuasive Advertising, p.107 for evidence)
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For high-involvement products that offer
clear benefits to consumers, use distraction
only if the message will be understood. (5.1.2)
Hayek vs. Keynes Rap (7:33) – Complies
Hayek vs. Keynes Rap: Round 2 (10:10) - Complies
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Panhandlers
What is the best strategy for a panhandler, to ask for
___ “a quarter or loose change” or
___ either “17 cents” or “37 cents”?
Write your reasoning in your learning diary.
The strange requests led 60% more people to give than typical
requests. Overall, it increased total revenues by 18%. (Santos,
Leve & Pratkanis 1994) (paper)
Why did this work?
Distracts from thinking about objections.
When is this relevant?
Low-involvement products
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.108 for evidence)
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When customers
might refuse
traditional appeals,
surprise them with an
unusual approach
(5.1.3)
Volkswagen’s
“Lemon”
By Bernbach
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A bargain in other terms
Which ad will sell more? Predict in your learning diary.
____ a) “For a package of 8 note cards, the price is $3.
35%
It’s a bargain.” or
70%
____ b) “For a package of 8 note cards, the price is 300
pennies. That’s $3. It’s a bargain.”
Will they differ much?
Why?
For low-involvement goods that are for immediate sale, consider
disruption then reframing of an offer. (5.1.4)
Evidence: Laboratory studies and field experiments in European
stores. (Kardes et al 2007) (paper)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.108 for evidence)
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Another parking ticket???
An ad was either tucked under a windshield wiper - making it
look like a parking ticket - or taped to a door handle - looking
like an ad. After they had a chance to read the ad, the 200
subjects were asked if they would complete an unrelated
questionnaire. Which ad had the highest compliance? Predict
in your learning diary.
62%a) ad that looked like a parking ticket?
___
___
37%b) ad that looked like an ad?
Was there much of a difference?
Explain.
Source: Dolinski &Nawrat 1998 (paper)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.110 for evidence)
Create an unrelated problem, then
remove it (5.1.5)
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Perspectives
Monk 1: “I asked the Abbott if I
could smoke while I prayed, and
he said no.”
Monk 2 replied: “That's odd. I
asked him if I could pray while I
smoked, and he said yes.”
Perspectives is defined here as
ways to present an offer.
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Nearly all ads consider perspectives
Analysis of over 2,800 ads from 14 popular U.S.
magazines (e.g., TIME) found that 92% of them used
framing.
(1) attribute framing only, e.g., “fat-free milk” (52%);
(2) goal framing only, e.g., “lose weight” (8%); and
(3) both goal and attribute framing (40%).
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Perspectives for the Nutri-Grain campaign
In 1996, Kellogg proposed to introduce Nutri-Grain as a
healthy alternative to candy snacks. Their ad agency
proposed a different perspective. What would you
propose? Write your answer in your learning diary.
Then click.
“Breakfast on the go.”
They wanted to avoid associations with unhealthy snack
foods while reminding people that it was unhealthy to
skip breakfast. This campaign won an IPA Advertising
Effectiveness Award for demonstrated effectiveness.
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Present an offer from a new perspective (5.2.1)
A 1964 Volkswagen print
ad by Bill Bernbach
said: “A new
Volkswagen costs
$1,595. But that isn’t
as cheap as it sounds.
Pound for pound, a
VW costs more than
practically any car you
can name.”
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Present an offer from a new perspective:
Evidence (5.2.1.)
Analysis of almost 500 thirty-second TV commercials
by Ipsos ASI found that ads above the median for
ratings of “makes you think about the brand in a
new way” had
4% higher recall and
21% higher persuasion scores
than those commercials below the median.
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Would you prefer to have control over your investments or
would you prefer that the government make investment
decisions for you? Write your answers and reasoning in your
learning diary.
___ Self
___ Government
Should the government change the social security program?
___ No
___ Yes
Focus on benefits or features rather than choices (5.2.2)
Based on received wisdom. It needs to be tested.
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How to persuade people to change their choice
Would you prefer to have control over your investments or
would you prefer that the government make investment
decisions for you? Write your answers and reasoning in your
learning diary.
___ Self
___ Government
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How to persuade people to change their choice
• Would you prefer to have control over your investments or
would you prefer that the government make investment
decisions for you? Write your answers and reasoning in your
learning diary.
___ Self
___ Government
• Should the government change the social security program?
___ No ___ Yes
• Focus on benefits or features rather than choices (5.2.2)
Based on received wisdom. It needs to be tested.
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How to frame the benefit
___Avoid a loss
or
___Accentuate the positive?
No difference overall on prospect theory vs. positive framing
See O’Keefe & Jensen (2007), a meta-analysis with 42
experimental comparisons.
Conclusion: Ignore advice from prospect
theory with respect to persuasion
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When someone has an opposing viewpoint, for
example, a smoker, how do you try to change
their mind?
Tell stories or give them facts?
Use stories. They . . .
1. Convey powerful emotional images, which aids recall.
2. Lead people to process the information about the example,
rather than the argument.
3. Do not directly attack the target market’s beliefs; this
disrupts counter-arguing.
See experimental study by Slater & Rouner (1996) (paper)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.113 for evidence)
When the target market has an opposing viewpoint, consider
using a story. (5.3.1)
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Subway story
Jared Fogle’s incredible story of losing 245
pounds on Subway sandwiches, diet,
and exercise, was featured in Subway
advertisements.
It was powerful and easy to remember.
People thought about the example, and
it was a true story, so it avoided counterarguing.
It led to a successful campaign.
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Use stories for global warming alarm?
Used successfully by the alarmists (e.g., polar bears).
This option not open to skeptics.
1.A story that all will be fine does does not provide a
powerful image. Few people would pay attention.*
2.Furthermore, the skeptics would not be addressing the
alarmists.
*in 1896, Swedish Nobel Prize winner, Svante Arrhenius,
forecasted that CO2 was increasing and would cause warming -and that this would be beneficial to mankind. It attracted little
interest.
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Men’s suits case
Suppose that you were selling men’s suits. Your
advertising agency proposes two possibilities for print
advertising, each with the same price:
A. Clip this coupon and we will give you $100 off any
suit in the store.
B. Bring in your old suit and we will give you $100 for
it when you purchase any suit in the store.
– Which would you chose: ___A? or ___B?
– Why? Write your answer in your learning diary.
Most people chose B because of the sunk cost fallacy
or “waste.” (See Persuasive Advertising, p.114 for evidence) Adprin.com
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Offer credit for currently owned products
(5.4.1.)
For experimental evidence, see Arkes & Ayton 1999.
Additional research summarized on p. 114 of
Persuasive Advertising.
Can you think of any examples? Write them in your
learning diary.
Apple has used this principle in their advertising.
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5.4.1
Offer credit for currently owned products IKEA Goodwill Event - complies
Note: The above ad was run in April 2003.
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Advertising ways for busy people to commit
to spend time
Assume that you are advertising a three-day
conference to people who are very busy. How could
an advertiser increase the likelihood that people will
attend?
Seek early commitment for time-consuming
activities. (5.4.2)
People think about the benefits for the distant
future and the constraints in the short term.
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American Cancer charity drive
Assume that you are trying to raise money for a
charity in a direct mail campaign. Which
approach would produce the most donations
and why? (write your answer in your learning
diary): asking for
A. “$5 or $10 or $25” or
B. “$50 or $100 or $250”?
Option A brought in 2.5 times as much. Why? Weyant & Smith
(2006) (paper)
Consider making small requests (5.4.3)
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More evidence on small requests
1. Would you help by giving a donation?
2. Would you help by giving a donation? Even a
penny would help.
Version 2 doubled the donations by overcoming
objections. Cialdini & Schroeder 1976 (paper)
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Will customers believe in us?
Fogg (2003) reported on a survey of users of
websites. What was the most important in a list of
30 possible factors that lead to high credibility?
“The site represents an organization
that you respect.”
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Make the brand name prominent (5.5.1)
Repeat brand name (“Bose” was repeated ten
times in the print ad “Why pay $349?”)
Different font - the standard for the brand; also size
and emphasis.
Placement (primacy & recency)
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Make the brand name prominent: Evidence
(5.5.1)
Quasi-experimental data from WAPB showed that recall for
ads with more prominently displayed brand names was 1.4
times higher. (pages 117-8 of PA summarize the evidence.)
Analysis of over 1,500 thirty-second TV commercials found
that when the brand name was repeated orally three or
more times,
recall was 11% higher and
persuasion was 10% higher
than for ads that relied only on visual display of the brand
name.
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.118 for additional evidence)
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Make brand name prominent if positive (5.5.1)
“The
priceless
ingredient of
every
product is the
honor and
integrity of its
makers.”
“In 1954, when Printer’s Ink surveyed its readers for the
greatest ads of all time, this was one of two runners-up.”
5.5.1 - Make the
brand/company
name prominent if
it conveys a good
image – Jaffa Complies
Seeing a brand
name can be like
seeing an old
friend.
-Discussed in
Persuasive
Advertising, p. 116
“Tide” vs. “P&G’s Tide”
Double-branding? Predict in your learning diary
what kind of effect it had and why.
___ small effect? ___ large effect?
Check your answer against the one in PA pg. 118.
Include brand and company names (5.5.2)
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Remember Betty Crocker?
Does it help to personalize a brand?
Write your answer in your learning diary.
__ a) No
__ b) Yes
__ c) Do not know
Analyses of over 1,500 thirty-second TV commercials
tested by Ipsos ASI found that 10% used a character
to represent the brand. In these:
• recall was 25% higher and
• persuasion was 8% higher.
Personalize the brand (5.5.3) (See Persuasive Advertising, p.119
for additional evidence)
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5.5.3 – Personalize the brand
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When should you use mystery ads?
Consider: A politician who is not in your party provides a
strong argument for a policy you favor. How would you
respond?
Experiment by Fazio, et al. (1992) presented 21 TV
commercials for high-involvement products to 228 subjects.
four unknown brand and
five established brands.
Brand recall was higher for each of the unknown brands when
the brands were mentioned only at the end of the ads.
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.117 for additional evidence)
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Consider mystery ads only when the brand
or organization does not enhance the claim
Makes sense, but not much evidence to date.
In our WAPB analysis of quasi-experimental data on
print ads, recall for mystery ads was only 70% as high as
for early brand ID.
Often violated.
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What is
being
advertised?
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Comment: The
mystery
version was a
clear violation
of principles
(long copy;
omitting the
name of a
respected
brand).
Use a spokesperson who is similar to the
target relevant to the product (5.6.1)
Supported by laboratory experiments.
This common sense principle is supported by two
field experiments and by non-experimental data
(PA pp. 120-121).
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Is this spokesperson similar to the UK
taxpayer?
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An extreme example:
What is the principle?
Headline for an ad: “I has a dream.”
Tagline: “Speak out against Ebonics.”
Spokesperson is?
Atlanta’s Black Professionals
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5.6.1 – Use a spokesperson who is similar to the customer on
relevant traits – “I has a dream” – Supports
“Brought to you
by Atlanta’s
Black
Professionals.”
Note: Customers are more likely to imagine themselves as users of a product and thus be persuaded if the spokesperson is
similar to them. The above 1991 ad is an example using a sensitive issue where the message was from a source that was
similar to the target market.
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Do looks matter?
31 subjects were presented with pictures of candidates for the
forthcoming U.S. Senate race in 2004. Based on one-second
exposures, subjects rated how competent the candidates looked.
In what % of the races did the most competent-looking
candidate win? Write your answer in your learning diary.
– a) less than 40
– b) 40-50
– c) 51-60
– d) more than 60
69%
See Todorov et al (2005) (paper) Similar results were obtained for
the 2004 U.S. House of Representatives elections, as well as for
the 2000 and 2002 U.S. House and Senate elections.
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.121 for additional evidence)
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Selling the president
Why not pick the right political candidate to sell to the
public?
In summer 2007, measures of facial competency of the
2008 U.S. presidential candidates were obtained from
people who did not recognize them (e.g., school
children in NZ). (Armstrong et al 2010) (paper)
In sharp contrast with polls at the time, the ratings of
competency provided a perfect match with the
candidates that had the highest popular vote.
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Use a spokesperson whose appearance is
consistent with the objectives, product, and
target market (5.6.2)
How can you do this? Can the audience judge honesty,
warmth, agreeableness, and trustworthiness by
people’s appearance?
People do make these judgments.
And here is some validity to them but very small.
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“… a little rebellion now and then is a good thing, and as
necessary in the political worlds as storms are in the physical
world.”
Vladimir Lenin
___ Agree? ___ Disagree? Write your answer in your learning
diary and say why.
Actually, it was Thomas Jefferson.
The Massachusetts Department of Health used Janet Sackman
for an anti-smoking ad. In 1959 at age 17 she was the Lucky
Strike Girl. Because of her job, she began to smoke. Thirty-four
years later, her voice box had been removed due to cancer.
Use a trustworthy and credible spokesperson. (5.6.3)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.122-123 for evidence)
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“Personal beauty is a greater recommendation
than any letter of reference.” Aristotle, 350 BC
Was Aristotle correct? Write your reasoning in your
learning diary.
___ No
___ Yes
Only under some conditions. Under what conditions should
the spokesperson be beautiful?
Use a physically attractive spokesperson for products that
enhance beauty (5.6.4)
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Evidence
An analysis of 53 journal articles and 23 dissertations
obtained substantial support that beauty aids
persuasion in areas related to “social competence,”
somewhat for “intellectual competence,” and not at all
for “integrity and concern for other.” (Eagly et al. 1991)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.123 for additional evidence)
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Forewarning
“I am going to tell you about a deal that you can’t
refuse!” Is this a good way to advertise? Write
your answer in your learning diary.
___ No ___ Yes
For high–involvement goods, warnings generated
resistance, especially if there was a delay.
Forewarn about persuasion attempts for
low-involvement goods (5.7.1)
Meta-analysis by Wood & Quinn (2003) with 46 studies
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Help-wanted ad
“Men wanted for hazardous journey. Small wages, bitter
cold, long months of darkness, constant danger, safe
return doubtful. Honor and recognition in case of
success.”
Good ad? ____ No ___ Yes
Write your reasoning in your learning diary.
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Two-sided arguments
Are two-sided ads effective? (Aristotle said yes.) Write your
answer in your learning diary.
__ Yes
__ No
__ Yes, but only under the following conditions:
107 studies compared one-sided with two-sided arguments
(O’Keefe 1998)
•When negative argument was refuted, the two-sided
argument was more persuasive than the one-sided.
•When the negative argument was not refuted, the onesided argument was more persuasive.
Use two-sided arguments that refute strong opposing
arguments. (5.8.1)
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Application of two-sided argument to
Global Warming Alarm
GW advocates have relied on one-sided arguments,
which was effective when it was a low-involvement
topic and when they could shut off debate.
Now that it is high-involvement and the Internet, radio
and TV have been providing debate, the skeptics can
use the 2-sided approach, while GW advocates cannot.
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5.8.1 – Use two-sided arguments that refute strong
opposing arguments – VW Homely? Supports
“At first you think
it is the homeliest
thing you ever
saw. But pretty
soon you get to
love her shape.
And after awhile,
no other car looks
right.”
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Should you put the good news first or last in
an ad?
A meta-analysis found 31 tests. (O’Keefe 1999)
Having the good news first is better than last, but
it’s best to have them interwoven.
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Direct vs. indirect conclusions
When should you use direct conclusions?
Indirect: “Now that you know the difference, decide for
yourself which disposable razor you should buy.”
Direct: “Now that you know the difference, shave with Edge,
the disposable razor that is best for you.”
If resistance is not expected, use direct conclusions. (5.9.1)
If resistance is expected, use indirect conclusions for highinvolvement products when the arguments are strong and
obvious. (5.9.2) (See Persuasive Advertising, p. 128 for evidence)
“Too much zeal offends when indirection works."
Euripides, Greek playwright, 480-406 BC
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Ways to be indirect
1. Do not state an explicit conclusion.
2. Use innuendos.
3. Allow the conclusion to be “overheard.” For
example, stated by on-screen person, as in
candid camera or as in a debate.
4. Treat the claim as already accepted.
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Evidence on direct conclusions
A research review of over 40 studies on consumer
behavior found that direct conclusions led people to
reassert their beliefs and to resist persuasion.
(Clee & Wicklund 1980)
Lab experiments since 1980 have added further
support for this persuasion principle.
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What’s going on in these ads?
“Chivas Regal is always twelve years old. Rarely 13.”
Volkswagen snowplow (1:00)
Implied claims are almost as believable as direct claims
Use positive innuendos when there is some basis
(5.10.1)
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Use positive innuendoes when there is some basis
(5.10.1)
A direct claim such as “Nike shoes help Michael Jordan to
jump high” might lead to counter-arguing. Also, it might not
be true. This ad uses an innuendo.
- Discussed in Persuasive Advertising, p. 129
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5.10.1 – Use positive innuendoes when there is
some basis – Violates
“How long can
you expect a Volvo
to last? We’re not
sure yet how long
a Volvo will last in
the U.S. In
Sweden, Volvos
are driven an
average of eleven
years.”
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5.10.1 - Use positive innuendos when there is
some basis – Sainsbury - complies
This headline builds on the innuendo in the
illustrations and draws the reader into the body copy.
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Negative innuendos
“Would you vote for Senator Smith if you learned that he
embezzled funds?”
Laboratory experiments showed that the use of hypothetical
questions affected voters’ choices of political candidates
and customers’ choices of products.
Fitzsimmons & Shiv 2001) (paper)
Negative innuendoes are effective when there is one major
competitor and total demand is of little interest. (5.10.2)
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Successful
example of
negative
innuendo.
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Review board exercise
You work on an internal review board in an ad agency.
The review board is concerned primarily with ethical
and taste issues. The agency has prepared the Frog ad.
Describe how you would “review” this ad in your
learning diary.
The Frog ad (54 sec) by Greenpeace.
This ad was developed in 2006.
Once you have written your approach, go to the next
slide.
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Analysis of the frog ad
An interesting and powerful example of the use of Innuendoes. It is well designed for
low-involvement viewers. The issue revolves around whether there is “some basis”
for the innuendo.
Responsibility of the ad agency?
Check to ensure that the frog story is true.
(Wikipedia provides a balanced discussion.)
Legal?
Assuming the frogs do die, the use of innuendos offers some protection on the
legal side.
Ethical?
Depends on your personal standards. Some people might regard it as a deceptive
ad about an important topic, and thus judge it to be unethical.
Assess possible reactions by stakeholders?
If the ad were to be aired, skeptics might test it. If the frog story is false, they
could go to their local police office in the UK and file a complaint about false
advertising.
Review process for your group’s campaign
Use the MAAD process to evaluate an ad by your group
1.Each member of the review board would
independently examine the ad in light of the agency’s
ethical and legal standards against a checklist).
2.Members of the board also consider the ad in light of
their personal standards.
3.Evaluations submitted anonymously to a facilitator.
4.Suggestions made independently and anonymously on
how to resolve the issues.
5.The report would be prepared by the facilitator and
circulated for comments.
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Consider the “overheard conversation”
Suzuki and Yamada (2004) presented 24 Japanese
subjects with online ads for 15 products (e.g.,
movies).
At the end of each ad, they saw one of two scenes:
either a life-like agent looking at the viewer or two
life-like agents looking at each other and conversing.
In each case, the agent said the same thing, such as,
“You must watch that movie because it was very
interesting.”
Purchase intentions for the overheard conversations
were 31% higher.
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Example of overheard conversation when many
in the target market differ
Global warming explained (6:30)
To make a movie like this, go to plotagon.com. In less
than 2 hours you can develop a new skill.
Make a persuasive movie for the global warming
problem (or for another issue).
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Involving the customer
“We are usually convinced more easily by reasons we have
found ourselves than by those which have occurred to others.”
Blaise Pascal, mid-1600s
“When baiting a trap with cheese,
always leave room for the mouse.”
Howard Gossage, noted advertiser, 1960s
Example:
What information would convince you that climate change
poses no serious threat to mankind?
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If good reasons can be easily generated, ask
customers to provide a few reasons for
accepting the offer (5.11.1)
Can also be used for negative advertising. “Can you
think of one reason why you should not vote for
Jones?”
Laboratory experiment: One or ten reasons to buy a
BMW. One easy task (one reason) people had higher
product ratings. (Wanke et al. 1997) (paper). (See Persuasive Advertising,
p.133 for additional evidence)
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“Imagine that you are moving to the city where you have
accepted a job. You need to rent an apartment and consider:
A: Rent: $490 per month; view: poor - - back of another
building; atmosphere: a bit dark and dreary.
B: Rent: $810 per month; view: excellent- - cityscape and
river; atmosphere: bright and sunny.”
When people made a choice quickly, they picked alternative B
about half the time.
But when encouraged to think about their satisfaction, their
optimism took over and they selected alternative B about 86%
of the time. Source: Shiv & Huber (2000)
And the principle is?
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Consider asking customers to imagine their
satisfaction with a product. (5.11.2)
Supported by experiments, but we do not know
a lot about how to use this.
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British Air Campaign
British Airways advertising campaign invited people to try
its business class. If not satisfied, they would receive free
coach tickets for another trip. Was that a good idea?
___ Yes ___ No
Explain in your learning diary:
Experiments were conducted on satisfaction with a computer
company, electric utility, super market, electronic
equipment company, and magazine.
Some people knew that they would be asked weeks later
about their satisfaction, while others did not. All experiments
done in real situations with large samples.
Those who expected to evaluate the product were much less
satisfied (Ofir & Simonson 2001. This is an important
study.) (See Persuasive Advertising, p.134-135 for evidence) Adprin.com
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Do not invite customers to evaluate their
satisfaction while using a product. (5.11.3)
In addition to reduced customer satisfaction:
1. Pre-announced (or expected) surveys reduced the likelihood
that people focus what’s wrong; thus, producers were less likely
to know why they were dissatisfied.
2. Suppliers in contact with customers are less less satisfied.
OK to use unannounced small sample surveys occasionally, thus
gaining information at less expense and avoiding harm. Even
better, ask the people in your company to listen to consumer
suggestions (and complaints) and pass them along to those who
design your product.
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Can you provide examples of organizations
that violate this principle?
Universities started to violate this principle around
1970 – with detrimental results.
Since then, it has spread to many areas of our life.
(See short paper:Improving Service Quality and Satisfaction)
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Suggest a way to assess satisfaction that
would avoid focusing on what’s wrong
After writing your answer in your learning diary, check
it against the one in PA, p. 135.
What principle did I just use? Write your answer, then
click for the answer.
Zeigarnik effect.
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Exercise on helping
Assume you come upon someone in obvious need
of help and you were able to help. Would you help?
Write your answer in your learning diary.
10 = definitely to 0 = definitely not ______.
Consider this illustration of the problem.
How might you solve this problem?
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Self-predictions
Ask people to predict predict their behavior. They tend to
respond in a socially responsible manner.
For example: “Assume that you had a meeting with a professor
about an upcoming exam. Suddenly, he was called out of the
office. When he left, you saw the answer sheet. You could read
it from where you sat. Would you cheat by looking at the
answers?” Write in your diary how you would respond.
Those who made predictions said they would not cheat. In a
follow-up experiment they were substantially less likely to
cheat (Spangenberg and Greenwald 1999).
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Encourage customers to make predictions
about their behavior (5.11.4)
15 experiments support this principle. Here is one:
Lab experiment to get people to complete a questionnaire:
___ A) “Support the American Cancer Society”
___ B) “Ask yourself. Will you support the American Cancer
Society?”
Predict the percentage of people who completed the
questionnaire in each group in your learning diary.
Of those in the self-prophecy group B, 52% completed the
questionnaire, versus only 31% of the control group A.
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Evidence on self-predictions
The experimental evidence is quite strong.
Self-predictions increased success in performing
desired behavior (e.g., healthy behavior) from 37%
without, to 63% with self-predictions.
Based on a meta-analysis of 7 experiments.
Sprott et al. (2006). Self-prophecy led to increases in
socially responsible behavior (e.g., less cheating), in
meta-analysis of 15 experiments.
Spangenberg & Greenwald (1999).
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Use self-predictions in advertising, especially
for socially relevant issues
Self-predictions most effective for persuasion for
socially-relevant issues.
The U.K. police force ran a campaign called, “I
could not. Could you?” It showed celebrities
who faced actual police problems.
It led to to a 50% increase in the number of
applicants and to an increase in the quality of
recruits. It also improved police morale and
public perceptions of policemen.
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Hey, what was that principle you just read?
Why is it hard to remember?
Lack of effort by the recipient of the message.
So what can you do to get the audience to spend
effort?
Write your answer in your learning diary, then click
here.
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Ask customers to remember the brand name or
key arguments (5.11.5)
Two experiments with radio ads supported this
principle: Reardon & Moore (1996) (See Persuasive Advertising, p.137 for
additional evidence)
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Consider omitting or delaying key information
(5.11.6)
This principle is based on the Zeigarnik effect showing
that unfinished tasks stick in a person’s mind.
This principle was used in teaser campaigns (e.g., a
1915 ad prior to the introduction of Camel cigarettes
stated only “The camels are coming.”)
Support was obtained from two laboratory studies on
TV commercials (Heimbach & Jacoby 1972)
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Consider omitting or delaying certain information
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Violations of this Zeigarnik principle
are common
It is effective because it calls for effort on the part of
the target market.
This creates a problem for effective management
presentations and for lectures. People get a bit
frustrated when the speaker fails to “make things
easy.”
This is another reason why “liking” is a poor measure
of advertising effectiveness.
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In the 12th century, town criers in France gave
samples of wine
Why does this work? Write your answer then click.
1.Reciprocity
2.Endowment theory
Change behavior before you change attitudes.
Consider advertising a free trial or sample for
products new to the target market (5.12.1)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.138-139 for substantial evidence)
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Example of an application
An ad for the Bose Wave stated, “We don’t expect you
to take our word for how good the Bose Wave radio
sounds.” It then offered a free trial.
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Evidence on free trials
The endowment effect: possession of a product for one’s
own use leads them to value the product more highly. At
least 7 lab experiments. (Reb & Connolly 2007)
It also applies if people merely touch or hold the object.
The longer the better. See experiments tied to gaining
information (Grohmann et al 2007) and others based on
endowment (e.g., Wolf et al 2008 and Peck & Shu 2009).
And with coupons for a product (Sen & Johnson 1997).
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Cage-free eggs sell for 3 times the price of regular eggs.
Can you describe what is a cage-free egg and what its
benefits are?
Few people can explain the benefits. Tests show that
they taste the same, and the chickens are no more
humanely treated.
Support popular causes, especially for hedonic
products. (5.13.1)
. . . Avoid controversial causes.
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5.13.1 - Support popular causes – Avoid drunk
driving – Taxi - Complies
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Support popular causes (5.13.1)
Texting while driving: (0.30) Complies
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Evidence for supporting
popular causes
People report that they are much more likely to purchase
from a company associated with a popular cause (Ellen et al
2000) and they are willing to pay more (Loureiro et al 2002).
For example, cage free eggs have sold for as much as three
times regular egg prices even though people have little idea
what “cage free” means.
Cause-related marketing is more effective for hedonic rather
than utilitarian products (Strahilevitz 1999).
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Tie purchases to popular causes (5.13.2)
To develop long-term relationships and avoid legal
problems provide honest and easy-to-understand
statements about amounts donated.
“Paul Newman, as sole owner of Newman’s Own, donates
all his profits and royalties after taxes for educational and
charitable purposes.”
This is done only in about 4% of the ads. The other
96% of the ads cannot be understood, even by those
with a college education. (Olsen et al. 2003)
(See Persuasive Advertising, p.141 for additional evidence)
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Application session
Time-out: How many possible applications can you
think of for yourself?
What was your goal for this session?
See next slide.
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Ideas for Applications
To learn the principles, use the checklist for creating
ads to apply the resistance principles.
If you are not currently working for an organization,
pick something to advertise, perhaps a charity.
If you are in a class, design an ad for yourself as the
owner of small advertising agency (commonly
called a “house ad”).
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Techniques
In your diary, describe the techniques that you were
able to use for your advertisement using resistance
principles and rate your success (e.g., creativity,
objective setting)
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Follow-up: Complete prior to next session
1. ___ Go through this lecture on your own (It is on
the Educational Materials page)
2. ___Study Persuasive Advertising pages 103-142
and record your reading time in your learning
diary. Highlight techniques and principles that you
want to apply in yellow.
3. ___ Complete the End of Chapter Questions for
“Resistance” and check your answers against PA.
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Advice on learning
One study found that fewer than 10% of students were
successful in applying new knowledge.
•This went to 20% if they actively applied what they
were taught during a class session.
•It went to 90% when they worked with a learning
partner and coached each other.
Select techniques to apply
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