Message
Adapted from J. Scott Armstrong
Updated Feb 2015
Message 35
Learning Diary
The lectures follow an experiential learning experience.
To make this work properly:
1. Obtain a learning diary (paper). A 10 x 13 bound
diary is suggested.
2. Take the learning diary with you to all of the class
sessions.
3. For self-learners, use the diary to track your
learning progress for all of your learning activities.
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Objectives of this session
To understand and apply these principles and
techniques (not to convince you). Ask for clarification as
needed.
Set a goal for yourself on how many principles and
techniques you plan to use by the end of this session.
Even a goal of one will help you. Put this in your learning
diary now.
Note: We will discuss only some of the slides. When you go
through the lecture on your own, view it in “Slide Show” and
follow the experiential procedures.
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Procedure
Focus on understanding.
Record questions in your learning diary that will help
you to apply the techniques or principles, then,
after you decide which ones you want to apply, try
to answer these from the readings. If not clear, ask
others for help.
When working alone, put the lectures in slide show
mode and record your answers in your diary.
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How many arguments should an ad use?
When should you use many arguments and when should you
use few? What conditions are important? Write your
ideas in your learning diary.
People tend to use the average strength of arguments. So
Use only strong arguments for high-involvement
products (7.1.1)
OK to use weak arguments for low-involvement products
because customers assume the arguments provide a wellsupported point of view.
Evidence
8 laboratory experiments (Alba & Marmorstein 1987)
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What is wrong
with this ad?
Too negative
Write your
explanation.
Then click
here.
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“20% penalty for dinners
ordered after 7:00 PM”
And the principle is? Write your guess in your
learning diary, then click here.
Use positive arguments (7.1.2)
Quasi-experimental evidence: Print ads with positive
arguments had 1.6 times higher recall (WAPB)
Typical practice: 86% of print ads used only positive
arguments (WAPB)
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7.1.2 – Use positive arguments– Lanier – Violates
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Consider cultural values for arguments (7.1.3)
Cultural values are persuasive, but effects are weak
and due mostly to studies on individualism versus
collectivism.
Evidence: Meta-analysis of 67 experimental studies.
(Hornikx and O’Keefe 2009)
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How well do people understand ads?
People often race through ads, which lowers
comprehension. Even trained speed readers have
poor comprehension (Ehrlich 1963).
Print ads are much easier to understand than TV
commercials: 80% (Beltramini & Brown 1994) to 46%
(Schmittlein & Morrison 1983)
Information that is new to the target market is especially
likely to be misunderstood.
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Calculate readability scores for an ad
G = 0.4 * (S+W), where S is the average number of
words per sentence, and W is the percentage of
words with three or more syllables (ignoring
common suffixes such as “ed” and “ing”).
G approximates the number of years of schooling
needed to understand the text.
Apply this to an ad for your house ad, an ad for
your organization, or a management report. Write a
summary of your applications in your learning
diary.
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Does simple writing improve persuasion?
Review of 50 studies found only a weak relationship
between readability scores and persuasion (Anderson
& Davison 1988).
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When should an ad be clearly written?
Use simple prose for high-involvement products with strong
arguments (7.2.1)
When you have something to say, say it clearly. But when
arguments are weak better readability was associated with
lower persuasion. (Chebat et al 2003)
Advertisers (and academics) with nothing to say should not
say it clearly.
When messages are complex, they are persuasive only if
coming from a high-status source Hafer et al 1996.
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Low status/low expertise sources should
communicate clearly
Clarity is highly conditional. When you lack high
credibility or expertise – such as students or start-up
firms – complex writing is less persuasive and leads to
lower evaluations.
This finding conflicts with folklore. In a sample of 110
Stanford undergraduates, most admitted to writing in a
complex way in order to appear smarter.
Source: Oppenheimer (2006)
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“If you can’t convince them, confuse them.”
From seller’s viewpoint, consider:
•long-term relationships with customers
• stakeholders
From buyer’s viewpoint:
Beware of people bearing complex arguments.
The Dr. Fox study:
An actor delivered a completely meaningless talk to an
audience at a professional conference. He received high
ratings for the quality of his lecture. Here is an extension
of that study.
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Problems with this ad?
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The case of the missing condition
Avoid negative words (7.2.2)
Exception: when target market believes the opposite
“Don’t believe it when they tell you that immigration is bad
for this nation of immigrants.”
Possible exception: To gain attention to a problem that you
have solved? See the “Lemon” ad next.
Evidence: Our analysis of WAPB print ads found that ads
without negative words in the text had 1.3 times higher
recall.
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7.2.2 – Avoid negative words unless – VW – Lemon
Note: Though advertisers generally avoid negative words, they can be used for to address a belief among some
customers. They can also gain attention if they surprise, as was the case for Bernbach’s VW ad. Why would an
automaker call one of its cars a lemon? As the ad explained, a team of inspectors caught this defective car before it left
the factory.
7.2.2 - Avoid negative words unless the target market
believes the opposite – Continental - Violates
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Here are two ads for the same product.
Which had highest recall and why?
___ A: San Raphael toilets. Low profile styling conserves space.
The efficient design uses less water – only three and one-half
gallons
___ B: Vanquish those dragons of the Age of Commonplace.
Write your prediction and reasoning in your learning diary.
A had twice the recall of B.
Concrete words had 1.32 times higher recall (quasiexperimental data on 38 pairs of WAPB print ads).
Use specific words (7.3.1)
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“Specifics Sell”: More on the specific words
principle.
Example: In the early 1900s, nearly all brewers advertised
claimed “Pure beer.” Cleanliness was regarded as so
important. Claude Hopkins’ “live steam campaign” described
the specific procedures for making pure beer.” (PA, p, 186)
Strong evidence: Six experiments provide support. Here is
one: Products in ads with specific information were 1.8 times
more likely to be selected (Yellow Pages lab experiment by
Fernandez & Rosen 2000).
In our WAPB quasi-experimental study of 38 ad pairs, recall
was 32% higher with specific words (PA p. 187-8)
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Use power words if they fit the product (7.3.2)
Avoid hedges and waffling such as “we think” or
“perhaps.”
Evidence from a meta-analysis of 16 studies mostly
from research on mock juries for law cases (highinvolvement). Who would say “We think that our
client may be innocent”? (Burrell & Koper 1998)
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Evidence on power words
Meta-analyses support the persuasiveness of power words. Here
is an example :
Group A: Subjects offered choice of a Lindt chocolate truffle at
15 cents or a Hershey’s Kiss at 1 cent:
27% chose a Kiss.
Group B: Subjects offered choice of a Lindt chocolate truffle at
14 cents or a Hershey’s Kiss for free. What percent chose a Kiss?
69% chose a Kiss.
Source: Shampanier et al 2007
Notice the power of the word “FREE” (Discussed further in PA p.188)
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When should you use passive rather than
active sentences?
Active voice helps people to write more clearly, but
passive has been found to be easier to understand
when the reader can anticipate what will follow
(Anderson & Davison 1988).
Use active rather than passive voice, unless the
subject of the sentence is obvious (7.3.3)
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Benefits of active voice
Active voice aids clarity about who did what, often helps
to reduce words, and produces more rhythmic prose.
Passive: “A larger size and great taste are two benefits
Pepto-Bismol offers”
Write an active version in your learning diary, then click for the
actual slogan.
“Pepto-Bismol comes in a larger size and tastes great.”
Slogans with active voice had higher recall than those
with same content using passive voice. Bradley & Meeds 2002
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Consider interesting writing (7.4.1)
Especially for low-involvement products.
Famous authors – Sherwood Anderson, F. Scott
Fitzgerald, Daniel Defoe, and so on – earned
money by writing advertising when they were
struggling early in their careers.
Ogilvy said that did not go well. Readers focused on the
writing instead of the product.
Weak evidence: Only one experiment here.
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7.4.1 - Consider interesting writing – Drunk driver - Complies
Interesting writing can improve recall, tie into
favorable connotations, and enhance the
customers’ expectations.
- Discussed in Persuasive Advertising, p. 189
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For high-involvement products, use interesting
writing only when it supports strong arguments
Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
“At your public library, they’ve got these arranged in ways
that can make you cry, giggle, love, hate, wonder, ponder,
and understand.”
“When the lads are piping with all their hearts,
you feel you’re marching off to glory.”
Scottish travel ad
Caution: Potential danger if it distracts from the arguments
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AGAIN—DON’T SHOUT!!!!
Shouting attracts attention, but not necessarily from the target
market.
It detracts attention from good arguments, raises suspicion -and reduces quality image.
Google AdWords prohibits use of all caps and exclamation marks
in headlines.
Use a calm tone for high-involvement products with strong
arguments (7.5.1.)
Evidence: In a lab experiment for banking services (high
involvement), a calm tone led to a better attitude toward the
advertised service that an intense tone Gelinas-Chebat & Chebat
1996)
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Do not violate tastes (7.5.2) - Violates
Note: Blood stained clothes from a recent war. Readers complained.
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Retailers complained that the campaign hurt sales.
7.5.2 - Do not violate taste or standards –
Pierced body parts, church - Violates
Tastes and standards are often enforced by legal restrictions.
- Discussed in Persuasive Advertising, p. 191
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Groupon’s Tibet Commercial (0:30)
Assume you were your group’s executive and your
agency proposed this ad. Comments? Write them in
your learning diary.
Many people complained about this ad.
Here is the original version. (0:30)
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7.5.2 Do not violate tastes or standards – Organ
donation by a UK charity – Violates
“Becoming an
organ donor is
probably your
only chance of
getting inside
her.”
This ad for organ donations also violates other principles.
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Do not violate tastes or standards
(7.5.2.)
In your diary, describe ways to avoid taste violations
in advertising.
When you finish, go to the next slide.
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Some procedures for guarding against
poor taste in advertising
1. Independent review board (internal or external).
2. Copy test the concept or, better, a draft of the ad
with various interest groups.
3. List interest groups and anticipate reactions by
using simulated interaction.
4. Code of ethics applied by each person on the team.
Firms could use such procedures to protect their
clients. Try to apply some of these procedures to your
ads.
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7.5.2 – Do not violate tastes or standards - Violates
“Within the
curve of a
woman’s arm,
a frank
discussion of
a subject too
often
avoided.”
Tastes differ greatly within a culture, across cultures, and across time. A 1919 Odorno
under-arm deodorant ad outraged many subscribers to the Ladies Home Journal so that
they cancelled their subscriptions.
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Should ads observe political correctness?
“How many roads must an individual walk down
before you can call him or her an adult?”
(apologies to Bob Dylan)
“How many roads must a man walk down before
you can call him a man?”
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Be cautious about using a personal tone (7.5.3)
Lab experiment on razor blades with strong & weak arguments.
1.When arguments were weak, a personal tone was much less
persuasive.
2.When strong, a personal tone was more persuasive. (Burnkrant
& Unnava 1989)
Also quasi-experimental data on 46 pairs of ads. PA, p. 193-4.
• recall was 1.11 times higher for ads with personal
pronouns and strong arguments than for the other ads
• recall for ads with personal pronouns and weak arguments
was about half that of the other ads.
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Use words with sounds that support the meaning
(7.6.1.)
Which would be a larger and more powerful car, a
1) ___ Bromley, or
2) ___ Brimley?
Predict this in your learning diary and explain why.
The Bromley – across all languages (Yorkston & Menon 2004)
“The letter r appears to me to be the general instrument
expressing all motion.” (Plato)
Tipper et al. (1921), an advertising textbook, said that advertisers
should use words where the sounds supported the message.
Specific guidelines are provided of PA, p. 194-5. Apply them to
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your ads.
Use words with sounds that support the message
Advertisers can use word sounds to aid persuasion.
Examples:
1) words with hard consonants (e.g., Kodak and Pepsi) are
easier to recall.
2) words with voiceless stops (p, t, and K) as opposed to
voiced stops (b, d, and g) are perceived as smaller, faster.
sharper, and more feminine.
Additional guidelines can be found on pages 194-5 of Persuasive
Advertising.
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Evidence on guidelines for
using word sounds to persuade
Useful guidelines were developed from research
– by Klink (2001) in a study in which he asked 265
subjects to evaluate fictitious brand names.
– and Yorkston and Menon (2004) in a series of
studies where they presented two brands of ice
cream named Frish and Frosh and had subjects
sample each (which were identical). Intentions
were higher for Frosh.
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Dinner time experiment
Entrees at a restaurant were varied with some
having more descriptive adjective, such as
____ a) Grilled Chicken or
____ b) Tender Grilled Chicken
Assume 100 units of “a” were sold. How many of
“b” do you think were sold? Write your
prediction in your learning diary and explain why.
127 for “b” (Wansink et al 2001)
In the 15th century, barkers around St. Paul’s
Cathedral in London used “elegant language and
plenty of adjectives.”
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Use words that enhance the purchasing and
consuming experience (7.6.2.)
Common sense? Remember, “That which we call a
rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”
Shakespeare
Additional experimental evidence at PA, p. 196.
For example, print ads with adjectives in the
headlines had 1.1 times higher recall. (Quasiexperimental analysis of WAPB print ads)
Adjectives are cheap.
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Use familiar words and phrases (7.6.3)
Jaguar built a campaign around the word
“gorgeous.” Suggest a more familiar term. In your
learning diary, write your suggestion and describe
how to find a more familiar word.
“Beautiful” was six times more common on Google
search.
Ask yourself, can you find any ads that could have
used more familiar words or phrases?
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7.6.3 – Use familiar words and phrases
Based on
the wellknown ad
for Wonder
Bread:
“Builds
strong
bodies 8
ways!”
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Word play: Good examples
Puns and double meanings can attract attention,
encourage thinking, such as to reinforce the
message:
“The Church of England: Open Sundays for better
values.”
“Great minds like a think.” The Economist
“Buy cheap socks and you’ll pay through the
toes.”
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Consider wordplay if it is clearly
related to the product (7.7.1.)
An experimental study of magazine ads found that
recall was twice as high when ads had puns
(McQuarie and Mick 2003).
Quasi-experimental analysis of WAPB print ads
showed that recall was 1.25 times higher for ads
that used relevant wordplay. However, irrelevant
wordplay harmed recall substantially.
Non-experimental data also supports the use of
wordplay (PA, p. 199)
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7.7.1 – Use wordplay if it is clearly related to
the product
Note: Some copywriters suggest reading an ad aloud
a number of times to ensure that it flows nicely. It
also helps to ask others to read it aloud. An early
1900s ad for the Lackawanna Railroad (above) holds
up well by this test.
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Word play exercise
In 1961, marketing researchers summarized their
research about Schaefer beer as the one beer for
heavy drinkers to consume when they are
engaged in a substantive drinking experience.
Use word play to create a tagline in your learning
diary.
“Schaefer, the one beer to have when you are
having more than one.”
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Metaphors and figures of speech
We are drowning in metaphors (e.g., 86% of print ads),
especially in headlines.
Example: “Mercury forced other car makers into the
copier business.”
Metaphors are especially persuasive for low-credibility
sources and for auditory media. (Meta-analysis bySopory &
Dillard 2002)
Do not mix metaphors. Effectiveness drops as metaphors are
added.
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Principles for using metaphors
Consider using novel and concrete metaphors that
are related to a benefit (7.8.1)
(example: “Fly Eurostar to Paris.”)
29 empirical studies with 38 comparisons of literal
statements versus metaphors (Meta-analysis by
Sopory & Dillard 2002)
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7.8 – Metaphors and figures of speech
Esso Gas – Tiger in
your tank
commercial (0:31)
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Metaphors and figures of speech widely
used in advertising, but . . .
. . .they often overlook key aspects as
• only 22% used a novel metaphor and
• only 32% used one related to a selling point.
(Based on 480 full-page print ads by leading U.S. firms from
WAPB.)
Overall, only 16% used a metaphor that was both
novel and related to a benefit.
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7.8.1 – Consider using novel and concrete
metaphors that are related to a benefit - Complies
Note: Metaphors can be made more concrete by the choice of words as in
“Exceptionally soothing cream for upset skin.” Eventually, this phrase was
printed on the product.
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Use a single relevant theme – or two –
per ad (7.9.1.)
“Cravendale milk tastes so good it is never around
long enough to prove it can stay fresh longer.”
(IPA award winner in 2005)
Our WAPB analysis of pairs of print ads found that
recall was 1.16 times higher for ads with a single
theme (PA, p. 203)
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Avoid irrelevant information
if strong arguments exist (7.9.2)
Evidence from 10 lab experiments.
Example: Belief in benefits was lower when irrelevant information
was added to strong arguments (Meyvis & Janiszewski 2002)
Go through an ad for your organization or one of your
management reports and eliminate non-essential words,
phrases, sentences, and illustrations. Describe in your
learning diary what percentage of the words you were able
to delete with no loss of content.
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Principle for fast-exposure media
Recommend how many words you should put in a billboard
on a highway? _____
And how many pieces of information? ____
Write your answers and reasoning in your learning diary.
When using fast-exposure media, keep the message
short (7.9.3)
Words
Info
National advertisers
7
1.2
Local advertisers
13
1.6
Experiment showed that billboard ads with 7 or fewer words had
1.5 times as much brand recall, as those with 8 or more words
(Donthu et al. 1993)
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Informative illustrations
The … ideas to be expressed [in an advertising
photo] must present themselves at first glance.”
Harvey S. Lewis, advertising photographer, 1905
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Illustrations should support
the basic message (7.10.1.)
“Now there’s a Dove that smells like this” positioned at
the top of a blank page, except for small photo of Dove
at bottom with caption, “Introducing unscented Dove.”
Purchase intentions much higher in an experiment when
the illustration was relevant (Miniard, et al 1991) -- two
other experiments found that unrelated pictures
harmed effectiveness for high-involvement products.
(PA, p. 205-206)
Relevant illustrations had twice the recall for print ads for
18 pairs of WAPB ads (PA, p. 206).
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Jeep - go anywhere - 0:30
This ad complies by showing the benefit. It can be
used even when models change and it can be used
in any culture.
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7.10.1 – Illustrations should support the basic
message – “Torn Ocean”— Complies
Note: In 1957, El Al Airlines put a “jet prop” airplane into service over the Atlantic. It
avoided the need to refuel, thus reducing travel time by 20%. This full-page ad showed
a photo of the ocean with about 20% torn off to reveal white space. This ad ran only
once. That was enough to be successful.
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Show the product (7.10.2.)
Only 53% of ads in the top ten U.S. magazines from 1900
to 1920 showed the product.
This jumped to 89% in the 1970’s while
irrelevant pictures dropped from 18% to 4%.
Print ads with illustrations of the product and brand
name doubled recall. They were especially effective
for low-involvement products where recall was up by
5.7 times.(Yellow Pages experiment in Childers &
Houston 1984)
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Which dotted line is longer, the horizontal or vertical,
and by how much? Write your answer in your
learning diary. Then click for the answer.
Horizontal; 16%
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Emphasize desirable features
in illustrations (7.10.3.)
Elongation illusion well-established
Example: to emphasize large drinks at a restaurant, show
pictures of tall narrow glasses rather than short wide
glasses.
Tall & narrow will seem about 20% larger Wansink & van
Ittersum 2003; also see Raguhbir & Krishna 1999.
Useful to consumers also: alcoholic and those with
weight problems should use tall glasses.
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How much longer is the hallway table?
Hallway table
Coffee table
They are the same. Discussed in PA, p. 209-210
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Use call-outs to emphasize
desirable features
Meyers-Levy & Peracchio 1995
Cut-outs also helpful for
showing applications in
advertising proposals.
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When should you use photographs instead
of drawings or cartoons?
When believability is an issue, use photographs/videos
instead of drawings/cartoons (7.10.4)
Yellow Pages experiment showed that subjects given
ads with photographs selected more products than
those given ads with line drawings (Lohse & Rosen
2001).
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Example
violating the
believability
principle.
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Use color to provide information (7.11.1)
Examples:
Green: go, on, safe
Yellow: caution, warning, warm
Red: stop, hot, danger, loss, emergency
Blue: cold, off
But color meanings vary by culture.
Informative color led to a much higher likelihood of
selecting a product than did attention-getting color in two
Yellow Pages experiments. (Lohse & Rosen 2001).
Avoid uninformative colors
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Make elements of an ad
reinforce one another (7.12.1)
Headline, brand name, picture, camera angle, logo,
tone, copy, font, word sounds, colors, and layout
should be consistent with one another.
Our WAPB analysis of pairs of print ads found that
those with consistent elements had recall that was 1.4
times higher. (PA, p. 213)
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When should corrective advertising be used?
Use corrective advertising/disclaimers only if they
provide information that customers need (7.13.1)
Otherwise it harms comprehension and leads to poorer
decisions.
If used, try to avoid negative words.
Experimental studies show that government-mandated
disclaimers have confused customers and harmed decision
making. We have found no experiments to support mandatory
disclaimers. (Green & Armstrong 2012)
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Ideas for Applications of Principles
To learn the principles, use the checklist for
creating ads to apply the message principles.
If you are not currently working for an organization,
pick something to advertise, perhaps a charity.
If you are in a class, design an ad for yourself as the
owner of small advertising agency (commonly
called a “house ad”).
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Techniques
In your diary, describe the techniques that you were
able to use for your message advertisement and rate
your success (e.g., creativity, objective setting)
In your diary, write how you would use simulated
interaction to test your message-focused ads.
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Advice on learning techniques
One study found that fewer than 10% of students were
successful in applying new knowledge.
• This went to 20% if they actively applied what they
were taught during a class session.
• It went to 90% when they worked with a learning
partner and coached each other.
Select techniques to apply
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Follow-up
1. ___ Go through this lecture on your own (It is on
the Educational Materials page)
2. ___Study Persuasive Advertising pages 180-216 and
record your reading time in your learning diary.
Highlight techniques and principles that you want to
apply in yellow.
3. ___ Complete the End of Chapter Questions for
“Message” and check your answers against PA.
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