To prepare athletes adequately, training is essential. Training and training methods depend on the types of movements, skill requirements and specific demands of the activity or sport.
The four types of training are:
-Aerobic Training
-Anerobic Training
-Flexibility Training
-Strength Training
Aerobic Training:
Uses the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply and can be trained via the following methods.
Continuous – requires a sustained effort, which is effort without rest intervals. It needs to persist for not less than 20minuets. The heart rate must rise above the aerobic threshold and remain within that target zone for the duration of the session. In the case of an endurance program, a period of time in excess of 30 minutes per a session is needed for an improvement in fitness to occur.
There are two types of continuous training:
1.
Long Slow Distance which is used to improve general condition. Heart rate should be between 60-80% of max heart rate and a focus on distance rather than speed.
2.
High Intensity Work of Moderate Duration requires heart rate at 80-90% of max heart rate, very demanding and requires work at or near competition pace.
Fartlek – means ‘speed play’. Participants vary their speed and terrain on which they are working, ultimately engaging both anaerobic and aerobic systems. It resembles a combination of interval and continuous training because of its random variation in speed and intensity. Bouts of intensity are determined by speed rather than heart rate percentage.
It is beneficial particularly for game players e.g. soccer, league, netball. Examples of Fartlek include: short burst of speed every two minutes of continuous running, running up and down sand hills, group running with changing leadership.
Aerobic Interval – involves alternating sessions of work and recovery. Durring aerobic training the rest period is very short, maximum of 20 seconds between exercise bouts. This training method effectively develops aerobic endurance because:
sustained effort of moderate intensity ensures that the aerobic system is stressed but not completely fatigued.
The level of intensity can be altered to achieve the desired level of aerobic capacity.
The overload principle can be easily applied.

Circuit Training – requires participants to move from one ‘station’ to another, performing specified exercises at each until they complete the circuit. It has the potential to make substantial improvements in muscular endurance, strength and flexibility. Circuit training can be used as an anaerobic or aerobic training tool depending on the type of activity, the time spent at each activity and the number of circuits required. This type of training also relies heavily upon how well the overload principle is applied. Progressive overload in a circuit is achieved by:
Increasing the number of stations
Increasing the time at each station
Increasing the repetitions at each station
Decreasing the time allowed for the circuit
Increasing the repetitions of the circuit
The greatest benefits of circuit training are achieved when:
The overload principle is applied
The skills at each station concentrate on the attributes needed for a particular game/activity
All fitness components essential to the particular sport or activity are developed
Record cards are kept to monitor improvement to keep athletes aware of their progress
The following link provides a number of examples for circuit training specific to the sport of boxing. You can also click on the other sports listed down the side to see specific circuits used for training: http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/muscular-endurance.html
Anaerobic Training:
Utilises high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to develop systems of energy supply that function in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic training is shorter in duration than aerobic training, lasting less than two minutes. While activity is brief, effort is maximal and followed by short rest periods that do not allow full recovery of systems that supply energy.
Another aim of anaerobic training is to develop greater tolerance for the lactic acid created as a result of the work.
There are three types of anaerobic training:
Short Anaerobic training last less than 25 seconds and develops the ATP-PC systems of energy.
Medium Anaerobic training last from 25 seconds to one minute and develops the lactic acid system for energy supply.
Long Anaerobic training last one to two minutes and develops the lactic acid/aerobic systems.

The Anaerobic energy system can be trained the following way:
Anaerobic Interval – can be described as sprint training over short distances using maximal effort. This type of training is usually directed towards the development of speed such as in a 100m sprint and for short bursts in games such as football.
In order to target the correct anaerobic energy system i.e. ATP-PC or lactic acid, short anaerobic, medium anaerobic and long anaerobic should be applied.
Interval Use
Work
Duration
Rest
Duration
Work-
Rest
Ratio
Repetitions
% of
Maximum
Speed
% of
Maximum
Heart
Rate
Long
Medium
Short
Sprint
Anaerobic threshold training
Anaerobic training
High energy training
(anaerobic)
Speed
(anaerobic)
2-5min 2-5 min
60-90 sec
30-60 sec
120-
180sec
90-180 sec
1:1
1:2
1:3
10-30 sec 30-90 sec 1:3
4-6
8-12
15-20
25+
70-80
80-90
95
100
85-90
95
100
100
Flexibility Training:
Muscle require not only strength but also length. Flexibility training is beneficial for the following reasons:
 The prevention of injury.

Improved coordination between muscle groups.

Muscular relaxation.
 Decreased soreness and tightness following exercise.
 Develops an increased range of movements around joints, maximising performance potential.
There are three types of flexibility training: Static, Ballistic and Proprioceptive
Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF).

Static Stretching
Description – is where the muscle is slowly stretched to a position which is held for about 30 seconds. Stretch should be held without discomfort.
Advantages – it is a safe way to develop flexibility and used extensively in rehabilitation of injury.
Disadvantages – if performed incorrectly, tearing of the muscle may occur.


Ballistic Stretching
Description – involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra stretch. It activates a mechanism in the muscles called the stretch reflex causing the muscle to contract. It should only be used by advanced athletes
Advantages – increases length of muscle and range of motion.
Disadvantages – The force and momentum of the movement can be potentially harmful as the contracted muscle is then stretched beyond its preferred length.
The stretch reflex – is an involuntary muscle contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscles are lengthened beyond their normal range.

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)
Description – is a progressive cycle incorporating a static stretch, an isometric contraction and a period of relaxation in the lengthened position. It is aimed at stretching and strengthening muscle in a safe movement.
Advantages – it is useful in rehabilitation programs. It has the ability to develop added stretch under safe conditions.
Disadvantages – it is very time consuming.
PNF Stretching in Practice:
The athlete and partner assume the position for the stretch, and then the partner extends the body limb until the muscle is stretched and tension is felt.
The athlete then contracts the stretched muscle for 5 - 6 seconds and the partner must inhibit all movement. (The force of the contraction should be relevant to the condition of the muscle. For example, if the muscle has been injured,
do not apply a maximum contraction).

The muscle group is relaxed, then immediately and cautiously pushed past its normal range of movement for about 30 seconds. Allow 30 seconds recovery before repeating the procedure 2 - 4 times.

Dynamic Stretching
Description – uses speed and momentum with movements experienced in a game to increase flexibility. It differs to ballistic stretching as bouncing movements are avoided with this method of training.
Advantages – reduces muscle tightness prior to competition. Gradually warms muscle fibres whilst also increasing flexibility. Its movements imitate those experienced in a game.
Disadvantages – it is not as safe as static and PNF stretching. Undue tension can be exerted by specific movements on muscles and across joints.
Strength Training:
Is a form of training where muscular contraction is resisted by calculated loads, thereby building strength of the muscle. This causes muscle hypertrophy which refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells. Strength training is fundamental to improvement in most sports and can be divided into two categories:
1.
Isotonic programs – participants raise/lower or pull/push free weights to contract/lengthen muscle fibres. Nearly all strength training is considered isotonic.
2.
Isometric programs – participants develop strength by applying a resistance and using exercises in which muscle length does not change. This type of program is useful for increasing muscle tone, rehabilitation.
Strength training has its own terminology:

Repetitions – the number of times an exercise is repeated without rest.

Repetitions Maximum (RM) – the maximum weight you can lift a number of times.
 Set – a number of repetitions done in succession e.g. one set equals 10 repetitions.
 Resistance – the weight or load being used.

Rest – the period of time between exercises, sets or sessions.

Examples of Strength Training Programs:

Free weights
Advantages - reasonable cost, easy to adapt to a wide range of sport specific movements, activates stabiliser muscles as well as agonist and antagonist muscles.
Disadvantages - can include greater chance of poor lifting technique, danger of dropping weights and the need for a spotter. All sports are suitable, as repetitions, loads and rests can be easily changed to suit a variety of needs.
 Fixed weight machines
Advantages include - safety is increased as weight is controlled and confined, technique is controlled to a large degree by the machine, easy to graduate the load and little knowledge is required.
Disadvantages - machines are expensive and consume space, stabilisers are not engaged to the same extent as free weights and most machines are dedicated to particular movements. These machines are excellent for athletes who can access well equipped gyms, athletes who wish to train alone, athletes who have limited knowledge of weight training technique and groups where safety is an issue e.g. school groups.

Elastic bands
Advantages - cheap, training can happen in any place, loads can be very low for athletes with injury, easy to adapt to a wide range of sport specific movements.
Disadvantages - it is difficult to attain high loads and there is a greater need for correct technique. Groups that are best suited include the elderly, the injured, the young, people with limited resources to access gyms.

Hydraulic machines
Advantages - there is resistance throughout all phases of the movement, thereby working all muscle groups, safe operation, quiet operation, specialised movement with little knowledge required.
Disadvantages - machines are expensive and consume space, stabiliser muscles are not engaged as much as other methods and machines are specific to certain muscle groups. Suitable for athletes with less knowledge of lifting technique and groups where safety is an issue.