AD643
Project Communications
Management
Class Five
Boston University - Metropolitan College
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Leadership
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Leadership Search
The PMBOK V4
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Lead
•
Lead - The process of influencing others to
achieve individual, group or organizational goals.


Leading involves getting others to perform the necessary tasks by
motivating them to achieve the organization’s goals.
Motivation is a psychological state that exists whenever internal
and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Leadership
•
Leadership is influence held over a group or
individual. This influence is used to move this
group or individual toward the attainment of a
goal or objective..
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Project Leadership
•
Project Leadership is influence held over a group
or individual Project Stakeholders. This influence
is used to move this group or individual toward
the attainment of the goals and/or objectives of
the project.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Who Makes the Best Leader
• We must identify leadership potential:
 It is a required element in a manager
 Succession Planning
• How do we identify Leaders
 This question was one of the first put to the emerging field of
Management Science
 In order for us to see what the fruit of MS’s labor it will be
necessary for you to participate in a little exercise we have for
you.
• Secure your area
• Have a pencil and paper handy
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Leadership
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This
influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a
goal or objective.
Three Major Groupings of Research
Study of Traits:
Research identified the following five traits as showing a consistent position
correlation with Leadership:
Intelligence
Dominance
Self-Confidence
High Energy Level
Task Relevant Knowledge
It should be noted that research may be interpreted to mean that these traits
are not Definite Predictors of Leadership.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Trait Model
Identified personal characteristics that, when present in a leader
will cause effective leadership.
Intelligence
Dominance
Self-Confidence
High Energy Level
Task Relevant Knowledge
* This list is in order of number of times that surveys reported this trait as required.
Research shows that certain personal “traits” do appear to be connected to
effective leadership.
Many “traits” are the result of skills and knowledge and effective leaders do not
necessarily possess all of these traits.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Leadership
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to
to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.
Three Major Groupings of Research
Behavioral Tendencies: Focused on the study of leadership behaviors.
Ohio State Studies:
Initiating Structure - (Setting & Meeting Deadlines, Employee Standards,
etc.)
Consideration - (Leader/Subordinate relationships, trust, respect)
Univ. of Michigan:
Grouped Leaders (Managers) into two Groups, Employee and Production
Oriented
Blake & Mouton:
Management Grid (Concern for People, Concern for Production)
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Leadership Models
• Behavioral Model
Identifies the two basic types of behavior that
many leaders engaged in to influence their
subordinates:
• Consideration: employee-centered leadership behavior
indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about
subordinates
• Initiating structure: job-oriented leadership behavior that
managers engage in to ensure that work gets done,
subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the
organization is efficient and effective.
• Both behaviors are independent; managers can be high or
low on both behaviors.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Leadership Behaviors (cont.)
• Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the
managerial grid. The managerial grid is more
complex and identifies five leadership styles
that combine different degrees of concern for
production and concern for people.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
The Managerial Grid Model
High 10
Country
1, 9 club style
9
9, 9
Team
style
Concern for people
8
7
6
5
5, 5
4
Middleof-theroad style
3
2
1
1, 1
Impoverished
style
9, 1
Low 0
0
Low
Jim Cormier
1
2
3
4
5
6
Concern for production
7
8
9
10
High
AD643 – Boston University
Produce or
perish style
AD643
Leadership
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to
move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.
Three Major Groupings of Research
Contingency Theories: Overlays the Situation to Determination of
Leadership Effectiveness
Autocratic - Democratic Continuum Model: Behaviors are viewed as
extremes on a continuum with differing leadership styles in between. Styles
are dependent on the leader's tendencies (traits), the operating group and
the situation.
Fielder Model: Effective group performance depends on the proper match
between the leader's style of interacting with her/his subordinates and the
degree to which the situation controls or influences the leader.
Leader - Participation Model: Vroom and Yetton, subordinate participation
in the decision making process enhances the degree of successful
leadership.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Contingency Models of Leadership
• Fiedler’s Model
Effective leadership is contingent on both the
characteristics of the leader and of the situation.
Leader style is the enduring, characteristic
approach to leadership that a manager uses and
does not readily change.
• Relationship-oriented style: leaders concerned with
developing good relations with their subordinates and to be
liked by them.
• Task-oriented style: leaders whose primary concern is to
ensure that subordinates perform at a high level so the job
gets done.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Fiedler’s Model
• Situation Characteristics
How favorable a situation is for leading to occur.
Leader-member relations—determines how much
workers like and trust their leader.
Task structure—the extent to which workers tasks
are clear-cut; clear issues make a situation
favorable for leadership.
Position Power—the amount of legitimate, reward,
and coercive power leaders have due to their
position. When positional power is strong,
leadership opportunity becomes more favorable.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
Figure 13.2
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Fiedler’s Model in Application
• Combines considerations of leader-member
relations, task structure, and position power to
identify leadership situations.
Identifies situations where given types of managers
might perform best.
Leader style is a characteristic managers cannot
change; managers will be most effective when:
• they are placed in situations that suit their leader style.
• the situation can be changed to fit the manager’s leader
style.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Gender and Leadership
• The number of women managers is rising but
is still relatively low in the top levels of
management.
Stereotypes suggest women are supportive and
concerned with interpersonal relations. Similarly,
men are seen as task-focused.
• Research indicates that actually there is no gender-based
difference in leadership effectiveness.
• Women are seen to be more participative than men
because they adopt the participative approach to overcome
subordinate resistance to them as managers and they have
better interpersonal skills.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Motivation
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Understanding Motivation
• Motivation is a psychological state that exists
whenever internal and/or external forces
stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
A person's needs are arranged in order of priority.
Once a need is met, the next higher on the list becomes the priority and motivation.
Two bottom needs are considered lower-order needs and the three top needs constitute the higher
order.
Lower order needs are satisfied externally (Example: wages, union contracts, tenure)
Higher order needs are satisfied internally (Affection, self respect, self-fulfillment)
SELF
_ACTUALIZATION_
________ESTEEM________
_____________SOCIAL____________
________________________SAFETY_______________________
_____________________________PHYSIOLOGICAL_________________________
1. Physiological - Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs.
2. Safety - Protection from emotional and physical harm.
3. Social - Affection, sense of belonging, acceptance and friendship.
4. Esteem - Self respect, autonomy, status, recognition and attention.
5. Self Actualization - Growth, achieving one's potential and self fulfillment.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Individual Differences Approach
• A need is a strong feeling of deficiency in
some aspect of a person’s life that creates an
uncomfortable tension.
• Hierarchy of needs describes the order in
which people seek to satisfy their desires.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Moving up and Down the Needs Hierarchy
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Theory X and Y:
Douglas McGregor's work proposed that managers grouped employees based on two distinctly different sets of theories.
They then molded their behaviors toward employees accordingly.
Theory X
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will attempt to avoid it.
2. Employees must be forced, coerced and controlled in order to achieve goals.
3. Employees dislike responsibility and will avoid it.
4. Employees place security above all other factors and will display little ambition.
These are lower order needs and satisfied accordingly (Contracts, tenure and wages)
Theory Y
1. Employees see work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. Self direction and self control are exercised by employees who feel committed to objectives.
3. Average employees can learn to accept (or seek) responsibility.
4. The ability to make good decisions is distributed throughout the population and not just within management
Adoption leads to programs such as shared decision making, more responsible & challenging jobs, etc.
No hard evidence that either are correct.
Assumptions can be correct in particular situations.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Leadership Behaviors
• Douglas McGregor coined the labels Theory X
and Theory Y to contrast the beliefs of leaders
as to what motivates their subordinates.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Assumptions Associated with
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory Y
Theory X
• Employees dislike work and will
try to avoid it if possible.
•
Employees like to work and
achieve something.
• Employees want and need
direction.
•
Employees want self-direction
and work toward the company’s
objectives.
•
Employees are eager to take on
responsibilities at work.
• Employees do not want to
participate in setting/achieving
goals
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Hygiene Theory:
Frederick Herzberg proposed that the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to
job dissatisfaction. Managers who remove factors that create job dissatisfaction are causing peace not motivation.
Hygiene factors - Dissatisfiers
Company Policy & Administration
Supervision
Interpersonal Relationships
Working Conditions
Salary (in this order).
When employees believe these are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied, neither will they be motivated.
Motivators - Satisfiers
Achievement
Recognition
Work Itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth (in this order)
Detractors claim: Ignores situation variables, does not show any relationship between satisfaction and production, and
other questioned the methodology used to rate satisfaction levels.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Organizational Approach
• Herzberg’s hygiene theory states that two
separate and distinct aspects or the work
context are responsible for motivation and
satisfying employees.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Two–Factor Theory
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Three Needs Theory:
David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees:
1. The need for Achievement.
2. The need for Power.
3. The need for Affiliation.
Goal Setting Theory:
Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation.
- Specific goals lead to increase performance
- Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals
- Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the
acceptance/action in difficult goals
Reinforcement Theory:
Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by
consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result.
- A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal
setting is internal
- Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action
Equity Theory:
Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as
"Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either
constructively or destructively to correct these inequities.
Expectancy Theory:
Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an
expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Three Needs Theory:
David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees:
1. The need for Achievement.
2. The need for Power.
3. The need for Affiliation.
Goal Setting Theory:
Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation.
- Specific goals lead to increase performance
- Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals
- Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the
acceptance/action in difficult goals
Reinforcement Theory:
Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by
consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result.
- A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal
setting is internal
- Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action
Equity Theory:
Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as
"Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either
constructively or destructively to correct these inequities.
Expectancy Theory:
Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an
expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Goal Setting Theory
• Goal-setting theory states that managers can
direct the performance of their employees by
assigning specific, difficult goals that
employees accept and are will to commit to.
 Management by objectives (MBO) is a participative goal-setting
technique used in many U.S. organizations.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
How Goal Setting Works
Effects on Employee
-Directs attention
-Energizes
-Encourages persistency
-New strategies developed
Goals
-Specific
-Difficult
-Accepted
Performance
Feedback
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Three Needs Theory:
David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees:
1. The need for Achievement.
2. The need for Power.
3. The need for Affiliation.
Goal Setting Theory:
Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation.
- Specific goals lead to increase performance
- Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals
- Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the
acceptance/action in difficult goals
Reinforcement Theory:
Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by
consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result.
- A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal
setting is internal
- Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action
Equity Theory:
Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as
"Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either
constructively or destructively to correct these inequities.
Expectancy Theory:
Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an
expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Process of Reinforcement and Behavior Change
Stimulus
Response of
Employee
(Behavior X)
Consequences for
Employee
Likelihood of Behavior
X in a Similar Future
Situation
Employee Experiences a
Reward
(Positive Reinforcement)
or
A Situation
Experienced
By Employee
Employee Reacts
By Exhibiting
Behavior X
Employee Avoids a
Negative Consequence
(Negative Reinforcement)
or
Employee Experiences a
Negative Consequence
(Punishment)
or
Employee Experiences
No Consequences
(Extinction)
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Three Needs Theory:
David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees:
1. The need for Achievement.
2. The need for Power.
3. The need for Affiliation.
Goal Setting Theory:
Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation.
- Specific goals lead to increase performance
- Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals
- Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the
acceptance/action in difficult goals
Reinforcement Theory:
Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by
consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result.
- A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal
setting is internal
- Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action
Equity Theory:
Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as
"Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either
constructively or destructively to correct these inequities.
Expectancy Theory:
Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an
expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Organizational Approach (cont.)
• Equity theory states that employees judge whether
they’ve been treated fairly by comparing the ratio of
their outcomes and inputs to the ratios of others doing
similar work.
• Reactions to perceived inequity
 Increase their outputs
 Decrease their outputs
 Change their compensation through legal or other actions
 Modify their comparison by choosing another person for
comparison
 Distort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are justified
 Leave the situation
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
AD643
Motivation
Points of Note
BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE
Three Needs Theory:
David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees:
1. The need for Achievement.
2. The need for Power.
3. The need for Affiliation.
Goal Setting Theory:
Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation.
- Specific goals lead to increase performance
- Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals
- Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the
acceptance/action in difficult goals
Reinforcement Theory:
Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by
consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result.
- A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal
setting is internal
- Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action
Equity Theory:
Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as
"Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either
constructively or destructively to correct these inequities.
Expectancy Theory:
Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an
expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward.
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory states that people tend to
choose behaviors that they believe will help
them achieve their personal goals (e.g., a
promotion or job security) and avoid behaviors
that they believe will lead to undesirable
personal consequences (e.g., a demotion or
criticism).
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Question:
If I make an effort, will
I be able to perform
the behavior?
Effort
?
Instrumentality
Question:
If I perform the
behavior, what
will be the
consequences?
Performance
Obtain desired outcomes
(e.g., rewards,
recognition, pride)
?
Receive undesirable outcomes
(e.g., punishment, ridicule
shame)
Valence Question:
How much do I value
the consequences
associated with the
behavior?
Jim Cormier
AD643 – Boston University
?