Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
The Scientific Revolution
Preview
• Starting Points Map: European Centers of Learning
• Main Idea / Reading Focus
• Dawn of Modern Science
• Quick Facts: The Scientific Method
• Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math
Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
The Scientific Revolution
Preview, continued
• Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry
• Science and Society
• Faces of History: Galileo Galilei
• Quick Facts: Causes and Effects of the Scientific Revolution
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Section 1
Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
The Scientific Revolution
Main Idea
New ways of thinking led to remarkable discoveries during the
Scientific Revolution.
Reading Focus
• What changes led to the dawn of modern science?
• What discoveries occurred in astronomy, physics, and math during
the Scientific Revolution?
• How did early scientists advance knowledge in biology and
chemistry?
• How did scientific ideas move beyond the realm of science and affect
society?
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Enlightenment and Revolution
Dawn of Modern Science
Some Middle Ages scholars sought answers about the natural world
from the church. In the mid-1500s, others began to think in new ways.
The Old View
• Scholars relied on traditional
authorities for beliefs about
structure of universe
• Geocentric theory, Aristotle
– Earth center of universe
– Sun, moon, planets revolved
around sun
• Ideas upheld by church,
accepted authority for
European intellectuals
New Viewpoints
• Scholars began to challenge
traditional authorities, 1500s
• Scientific Revolution, new
way of thinking
• Posed theories, developed
procedures to test ideas
• Why open to new ideas?
– Exploration
– New lands, new people, new
animals
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Dawn of Modern Science
Ancient scholars could provide no information about
new lands, people, animals
• Age of Exploration led scientists to study natural world
more closely
• Other things to be discovered, things unknown to
ancients
• Navigators needed more accurate instruments,
geographic knowledge
• Scientists examined natural world, found it did not match
ancient beliefs
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Enlightenment and Revolution
The Scientific Method
New Approach to Investigation
• Scientific Method
• Identify problem
• Form hypothesis
• Perform experiments to test
hypothesis
• Record results
• Analyze results, form
conclusion
Scientific Method Scholars
• Francis Bacon, experimentation
to gain scientific knowledge
• Rene Descartes, reason key
• Believed everything should be
doubted until proved by reason
• Relied on math, logic
• Ideas of both continue to
influence modern scientific
methods
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Enlightenment and Revolution
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Find the Main Idea
What was the Scientific Revolution?
Answer(s): a new way of thinking about the
natural world that challenged traditional views and
instead relied upon experimentation
Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math
Early scientists
• Made significant contributions in astronomy, physics and math
• Began to explain complexities of solar system, limits of physical world
• Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, among first
Copernicus
• Found geocentric theory of movement of sun, moon, planets not accurate
• Concluded sun, not earth, near center of solar system
• Heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun
Copernicus’ theory
• Idea of earth orbiting sun was not completely new
• Copernicus developed detailed mathematical explanation of process
• Was first scientist to create complete model of solar system
Enlightenment and Revolution
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On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
• Copernicus’ famous book not published until last year of his life
• Knew church would oppose work
• Work contradicted teachings of church
Weaknesses of theory
• Mathematical formulas did not predict positions of planets well
• Copernicus did not want to be ridiculed for weaknesses
• Died 1543 after work published, other scientists expanded on ideas
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Enlightenment and Revolution
Brahe and Kepler
Brahe, Danish Astronomer
• Wrote book proving bright object over Denmark sky was newly visible
star
• Called it supernova, distant exploding star suddenly visible on earth
• Book impressed Denmark’s King Frederick II
• Gave Brahe money to build two observatories
Observations
• Brahe used observatories
• Developed system to explain
planetary movement
• Believed sun revolved around earth
• Other five known planets revolved
around sun
Kepler, German
Mathematician
• Hired as Brahe’s assistant to form
mathematical theory from
measurements of planets
• Published result of measurements
of orbit of Mars after Brahe’s death
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Kepler’s Solution
Kepler solved main problem of Copernican
theory
• Copernicus assumed planets orbited in circle
• Kepler found assumption untrue
• Proved planets orbited in oval pattern, ellipse
• Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong, instead proved
heliocentric theory correct
• Kepler’s mathematical solar system model also correct
Enlightenment and Revolution
Section 1
Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math
More support
Starry Messenger
• Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
• Galileo described discoveries
• Built first telescope used for
astronomy
• Craters on moon, sunspots
• Scanned heavens beginning in
1609
• Saturn, moons of Jupiter
• Milky Way made up of stars
Change in science world
Principia
• Isaac Newton, English scientist
• Book explained law of universal
gravitation
• Brought together astronomy,
physics, math
• Wondered about gravity
• Gravity affects objects on earth,
also in universe
• Keeps planets in orbit
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Newton’s Findings
Newton developed calculus, new kind of math
• Used calculus to predict effects of gravity
• German philosopher Gottfried von Leibniz also developed
calculus at same time
• Each accused the other of plagiarism
• Historians believe it was simple case of independent
discovery
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Contrast
How did Copernicus and Brahe differ in their
views of the universe?
Answer(s): Copernicus—all planets orbit the sun;
Brahe—sun orbits Earth, other planets orbit sun
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry
Just as astronomers moved away from the works of ancient Greeks,
other scientists used the scientific method to acquire new knowledge
and make great discoveries in the fields of Biology and Chemistry.
Biology
Vesalius
• European Middle
Ages doctors relied
on Greek, Galen
• Used bodies of
executed criminals
for dissection
• Galen’s works
inaccurate
• Hired artists to
produce accurate
drawings
• Flemish doctor
Andreas Vesalius
became known for
work in anatomy
• On the Workings of
the Human Body,
1543
William Harvey
• English physician,
early 1600s
• Observed,
explained workings
of human heart
• Described blood,
circulatory system
functions
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Antony van Leeuwenhoek
• Dutch scientist, 1600s
• Used interest in developing magnifying lens to invent microscope
• First to describe appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, other
microorganisms
Robert Hooke
• English physician, inventor
• Used early microscope to describe appearance of plants at
microscopic level
• Credited with creating the term cell
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Enlightenment and Revolution
Chemistry
Robert Boyle
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
• Father of modern chemistry
• French chemist, 1700s
• First to define element
• Developed methods for precise
measurements
• The Sceptical Chemist, 1661,
described matter as cluster of
tiny particles (now called atoms)
• Changes in matter occurred
when clusters rearranged
• Boyle’s law - temperature,
volume, pressure affect gases
• Discovered law of Conservation
of Mass, proved matter could
not be created, destroyed
• Recognized, named oxygen,
introduced metric system,
invented first periodic table
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Summarize
What were the major contributions made in
biology and chemistry?
Answer(s): importance of anatomy and
dissection; function of blood and circulatory
system; invention of microscope; discovery of
certain laws of matter
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Enlightenment and Revolution
Science and Society
As science assumed greater significance, the question of the role of the
Roman Catholic Church in a changing culture became important. While
the church opposed the views of many scientists, it benefited from new
discoveries that made Renaissance art and architecture possible.
Science and the Church
Conflicts
• Church most powerful institution
in Europe, Middle Ages
• Primary resource for
knowledge, learning
• Cathedral schools, universities
trained people to run the church
• Most scientists did not want to
challenge role of Christianity
• Church explained world through
inspiration, revealed truth
• Science explained world
through logical reasoning
The church feared reason as an enemy of faith, but eventually began to
embrace some of the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Science and the Church
Galileo’s Theories
• Brought him into direct conflict with the church
• Church leaders pressured him not to support ideas of Copernicus
• Dialogue concerning Two Chief World Systems, 1632, showed support
Trial
• Pope Urban VII ordered Galileo to Rome to stand trial before Inquisition
• Church wanted to stamp out heresy, or dissenting views
• Trial held, April 1633
House Arrest
• Galileo stated would not use Copernican theory in work
• Received lenient sentence in return
• Pope ordered Galileo under house arrest, where he spent rest of life
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Enlightenment and Revolution
Science and Art
Renaissance
Artists
• Study of art, architecture not
separate from study of science
• Experimented with chemistry of
paints, nature of light
• Artists learned anatomy in order
to paint the body
• Used math to create
compositions of perfect balance
Architecture
Science and religion
• Mathematics, physics crucial to
great architecture
• Also used in engineering
achievements of the time
• Combined to produce great
artistic achievements of
Renaissance
• Most art, architecture dedicated
to glory of God
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Science and Community
Scientific Revolution established new way of
thinking about physical world
• Great advances made in astronomy, physics, biology,
chemistry
• Advances influenced developments in arts, architecture
• Impact of Scientific Revolution soon would cause
philosophers, scholars to wonder if reason could solve
poverty, war, ignorance
Enlightenment and Revolution
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Enlightenment and Revolution
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Draw Conclusions
How did the Scientific Revolution have an
impact beyond the realm of science?
Answer(s): led people to question the Church;
inspired great artistic achievements; led to new
ideas about government, religion, education, and
economics.