Week 1: An Overview of Welfare & Industrial Economics Francis O'Toole (fotoole@tcd.ie) Department of Economics Trinity College Dublin 30th September 2011 Economics: Fundamentals n n n n Economics: Scarcity and Choice Scarcity: Wants > Resources (Needs < Resources?) Choice: Optimising Behaviour, Cost-Benefit Analysis Incentives and Institutions n Neo-Classical Perspective (self-interested individuals, rational or at least rationally irrational) n Broad (political economy) Narrow (consumers and producers + some government) n Economic Agents & Models n n n n n n n n n Consumers (Individuals or Households?) Firms (Suppliers/Producers) Government(s) (Ireland, EU?, USA, … ) Agencies (e.g. Competition Authority, ComReg, CER, Department, … ) Consumers maximise happiness (utility, satisfaction) subject to income constraint Firms maximise profit (subject to cost environment) Government(s) maximise ? Agencies maximise ? Economics, Political Economy, Public Choice ≠ Public Finance Economics: Demand & Consumer Surplus n n n n n Individual Consumer Demand Quantity Demanded = F(P, Psub, Pcom, Y, Taste, …) Market Demand = Individual Demands Consumer Surplus = Willingness to Pay – Price Consumer Surplus = “Value” – Price Economics: Supply n n n n n n n Individual Firm Supply Quantity Supplied = F(P, Pother, w, r, …) Market Supply = Individual Supplies Economic Profits = Revenue – (Economic) Costs Economic Profits ≠ Accounting Profits Producer Surplus = Revenue – Total Variable Costs Long Run: Economic Profits = Producer Surplus Economics: Societal Welfare n Consumer Surplus + n Producer Surplus = n Societal Welfare n Income Distribution (in “background” at least) Price Determination & Elasticity n Quantity Demanded = Quantity Supplied n Own-Price Elasticity of Demand (e.g. market power?) Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand (e.g. substitutes and market definition) n n n Income Elasticity of Demand (Own-Price) Elasticity of Supply Firm’s Costs: Short Run n n n n n n Short Run: At least one input is fixed Diminishing Marginal Product/Returns Total Costs (TC), Average Costs (AC) Fixed Costs (FC), Average Fixed Costs (AFC) Variable Costs (VC), Average Variable Costs (AVC) (e.g. predatory pricing) Marginal Costs (MC): Link to Supply Curve (e.g. predatory pricing) Firm’s Costs: Long run n n Long Run: All inputs are variable (TC = VC) Shape of Average Cost Curve? Increasing Returns to Scale Decreasing Returns to Scale Constant Returns to Scale Market Structure n n n n n n n n Perfect Competition Monopoly Oligopoly, Monopolistic Competition, Imperfect Competition Contestable Markets Effective/Workable Competition Structure Conduct Performance (SCP)? Game Theory Empirical Industrial Organisation Perfect Competition: Assumptions n Large number of sellers and buyers Homogeneous product Free entry and exit Full information about demand and supply n Profit Maximisation (MR = MC) n n n Perfect Competition: Characteristics n n n n Short Run: Profits/Losses possible Long Run: Entry or Exit until Zero Economic (Excess, Supernormal, Abnormal) Profits Allocative Efficiency: P (SMB) = MC (SMC) Productive Efficiency: P = Min AC Monopoly: Assumptions n One seller, large number of buyers Homogeneous product (by definition) Barriers to resource transfers Full information about demand and supply n Profit Maximisation (MR = MC) n n n Monopoly: Characteristics n n n n n Short Run: Profits/Losses possible Long Run: Economic Profits (subsidised losses) possible Allocative Inefficiency: P (SMB) > MC (SMC) Productive Inefficiency: P > Min AC (generally) X-Inefficiency? (minimise costs?) n Natural Monopoly (can’t compare with competition) → regulation (narrow sense) n Deadweight Loss: Harberger Triangle n R & D, Profit Motivation Oligopoly: Assumptions n n n n n Few sellers, large number of buyers Homogeneous or heterogeneous product Free entry or barriers to entry Full information about demand and supply (usually) Aside: Monopolistic Competition = Oligopoly with Heterogeneous + Free Entry Oligopoly: Characteristics? n Cournot (1838): Quantity Competition Bertrand (1883): Price Competition Game Theory Cournot: Assumptions? Results Bertrand: Assumptions Results? n Repeated Games ??? n n n n Contestable Markets: Assumptions & Outcome n n Free entry and exit: No sunk costs Some price rigidity (e.g. menu costs) or lags relative to entry lag n Perfectly competitive outcome: potential use of hit-and-run strategy (even when n = 1) n Policy Relevance? Effective/Workable Competition: Assumptions/Characteristics n n n n n n No “harmful” inhibitions on entry and exit No “harmful” product differentiation No “harmful” coordination (e.g. price collusion) No “harmful” price discrimination Intrabrand competition, Interbrand competition, potential competition No Excess (Economic) Profits Effective/Workable Competition: Assumptions/Characteristics n n “To determine whether any industry is workably competitive, therefore, simply have a good graduate student write his dissertation on the industry and render a verdict. It is crucial, of course, that no second graduate be allowed to study the industry.” (Stigler 1956) Round & Siegfried (1994) Update?