Management
Leadership – motivation
Useful vocabulary
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Job design
Job scope
Job enlargement
Job enrichment
Job depth
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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Relational
Proactive
High-involvement
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Open-book
management
• Employee recognition
programs
Today’s lecture
We will:
• Define motivation
• Compare and contrast early theories of
motivation
• Compare and contrast contemporary
theories of motivation
• Discuss current issues in motivation
What is motivation?
• Motivation - the process by which a
person’s efforts are energised, directed,
and sustained toward attaining a goal.
• Motivation, or, to put it another way – why
people do what they do – is behind most
of our actions. We all do things for a
reason; however, that reason is not always
clear.
3 elements of motivation
• Intensity – how hard a person tries
• Direction – effort that is channeled toward,
and consistent with, organisational goals
• Persistence – how long a person can
maintain effort
RSA video
• Fun and interesting video
on motivation:
http://www.thersa.org/events
/video/animate/rsa-animatedrive
Early motivation theories
Early theories of motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
McGregor’s Theories X and Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s theory is that people are motivated
by needs. Once people have what they
need, their needs change and develop.
In the next diagram, you can see that these
start at the bottom with basic physiological
needs such as food and water. They then
progress and change until self-actualisation is
achieved.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs diagram
Selfactualisation
Esteem
Love
Safety
Physiological
What does it mean?
Maslow’s hierarchy looks at a person’s whole
life, not just their work life.
However, work can fulfil some of a person’s
needs to help them be more fulfilled and
therefore more motivated.
The next diagram offers suggestions of how
to interpret Maslow’s needs in a workplace
context.
What does this mean?
Maslow
Fulfilment activities
Workplace fulfilment
activities
Physiological
Food, water, sleep, sex
Money, working conditions,
kitchen
Safety
Safety, security, stability,
protection
Safe environment, job security,
benefits
Social
Love, affection, belonging
Friendly supervision, good
relationship with colleagues,
membership of groups
Esteem
Self-esteem, self-respect,
prestige, status
Job status, job title, positive
feedback, recognition
Selfactualisation
Growth, advancement,
creativity
Challenging work, opportunities
for autonomy, achievement,
promotion
Criticisms of Maslow
• People can be on multiple
steps at the same time
• People will move between
different stages in both
directions
• Not based on research
McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
• Theory X - the assumption that employees
dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility,
and must be coerced to perform.
• Theory Y - the assumption that employees
are creative, enjoy work, seek
responsibility, and can exercise selfdirection.
Criticisms of McGregor
• Managers used a set of assumptions
based on their view
• The assumptions moulded their behaviour
toward employees
• No empirical evidence to support this
theory.
Herzberg’s two factor theory
Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) the motivation theory that claims that intrinsic
factors are related to job satisfaction and
motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are
associated with job dissatisfaction.
• Hygiene factors - factors that eliminate job
dissatisfaction, but don’t motivate.
• Motivators - factors that increase job
satisfaction and motivation.
Herzberg’s two factor theory
Herzberg’s theory is in some ways similar to Maslow’s. He
puts forward the suggestion that people have two sets of
factors which contribute to their motivation:
Extrinsic and
Related to
Dissatisfaction
Hygiene
Factors
Motivators
Company
Policies
Growth
Salary
Responsibility
Work
Conditions
Achievement
Intrinsic and
Related to
Satisfaction
Herzberg’s two factor theory
McClelland’s achievement
motivation theory
He suggests that there are four main
needs that everyone has:
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The Achievement motive (n-Ach)
The Power motive (n-Pow)
The Affiliate motive (n-Affil)
The Avoidance motive (n-Avoid)
McClelland’s four needs
He suggests that everyone has a combination of these needs but that one
tends to dominate.
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The Achievement motive (n-Ach)
People with a high achievement need like to be successful and have positive
feedback.
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The Power motive (n-Pow)
People with a high power need like to be in charge of people and/or
organisations.
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The Affiliate motive (n-Affil)
People with a high affiliation need prefer to work with other people in teams and
groups.
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The Avoidance motive (n-Avoid)
People with a high avoidance need will avoid situations which may provoke
negative emotions in them.
Criticisms of McClelland
• Focus in the research was mostly on nAch
• Not very practical to use in organisations
as a tool because of time taken to
undertaken and expertise needed
• Motivators are internal and difficult to
identify and measure
Thematic Apperception Tasks TAT pictures
Criticisms of McClelland
• Focus in the research was mostly on nAch
• Not very practical to use in organisations
as a tool because of time taken to
undertaken and expertise needed
• Motivators are internal and difficult to
identify and measure
Activity – individual reflection
• What motivates you?
• What makes you get out of bed in
the morning?
• What makes you attend lectures?
• What makes you want to do well?
Select a theory and analyse your
own motivations.
Contemporary theories of
motivation
Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Goal-Setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning
Theory
Goal setting theory
That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback,
lead to higher performance
Difficult Goals:
• Focus and direct attention
• Energize the person to work harder
• Difficulty increases persistence
• Force people to be more effective and efficient
Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
• Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
• Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
• Culture (best match is in North America)
Goal setting theory
Reinforcement theory
• Reinforcement theory - the theory that
behaviour is a function of its
consequences.
• Reinforcers - consequences immediately
following a behaviour which increase the
probability that the behaviour will be
repeated. (reward, punishment, ignore)
Equity theory
Equity theory - the theory that an employee
compares his or her job’s input-outcome ratio
with that of relevant others and then corrects
any inequity.
• Referents - the persons, systems, or selves
against which individuals compare
themselves to assess equity.
• Distributive justice - perceived fairness of the
amount and allocation of rewards among
individuals.
Equity theory’s “Relevant
Others”
Can be four different situations:
Self-Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same
organisation
Self-Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organisation
Other-Inside
• Another individual or group within the organisation
Other-Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organisation
Reactions to inequity
Employee behaviours to create equity:
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Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person (focus
on another person to reference)
• Leave the field (quit the job)
Reactions to equity
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Paid by time:
• Over-rewarded employees produce more
• Under-rewarded employees produce less with low
quality
Paid by quality:
• Over-rewarded employees give higher quality
• Under-rewarded employees make more of low
quality
Expectancy theory
• Expectancy theory - the theory that an
individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will
be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.
Expectancy Theory
• The strength of a tendency to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness
of the outcome to the individual.
• ie, people will do more if they believe there
is a good reward
Expectancy theory details
Expectancy Relationships
• Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
– The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will
result in a certain level of performance.
• Instrumentality
– The perception that a particular level of performance
will result in attaining a desired outcome (reward).
• Valence
– The attractiveness/importance of the performance
reward (outcome) to the individual.
Expectancy model
Global Implications
Motivation theories are often culture-bound:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Order of needs is not universal
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and
performance concerns – not universal traits
Equity Theory
• a desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former
communists
• desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal
Designing motivating jobs
Designing motivating jobs (1)
• Job design - the way tasks are combined to
form complete jobs.
• Job scope - the number of different tasks
required in a job and the frequency with
which those tasks are repeated.
• Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion
of a job that occurs as a result of increasing
job scope.
Designing motivating jobs (2)
• Job enrichment - the vertical expansion of a job
that occurs as a result of additional planning and
evaluation of responsibilities.
• Job depth - the degree of control employees have
over their work.
• Job characteristics model (JCM) - a framework for
analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five
primary core job dimensions, their
interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.
Five core job dimensions
• Skill Variety: degree to which the job incorporates a
number of different skills and talents
• Task Identity: degree to which the job requires the
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
• Task Significance: how the job impacts the lives of
others
• Autonomy: identifies how much freedom and
independence the worker has over the job
• Feedback: how much the job generates direct and clear
information about the worker’s performance
Job characteristics model
Contemporary job design
approaches (1)
• Relational perspective - focuses on how
people’s tasks and jobs are increasingly
based on social relationships.
• Proactive perspective - in which employees
take the initiative to change how their work is
performed.
• High-involvement work practices - work
practices designed to elicit greater input or
involvement from workers.
Guidelines for job re-design
Current issues in motivation
Integrating modern theories of
motivation
Global issues in motivation (1)
• Motivational programs are most applicable in
cultures where individualism and
achievement are cultural characteristics (eg
USA).
• Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures
inverts Maslow’s needs hierarchy
– Eg, security needs – Japan, Greece Mexico
– Eg, social needs – Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
Finland, Netherlands
Global issues in motivation (2)
• The need for achievement (nAch) is
lacking in other cultures (eg, Chile,
Portugal)
• Collectivist cultures view rewards as
“entitlements” to be distributed based on
individual needs, not individual
performance (eg, socialist countries)
Motivating a diverse workforce
• Motivating a diverse workforce through
flexibility:
– Men desire more autonomy than do women.
– Women desire learning opportunities, flexible
work schedules, and good interpersonal
relations
– Gen Y and older workers have different needs
Motivating a diverse workforce
(2)
Compressed workweek
• Longer daily hours, but fewer days
Flexible work hours (flextime)
• Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure,
lunch and break times around certain core hours
during which all employees must be present
Job Sharing
• Two or more people split a full-time job
Telecommuting
• Employees work from home using computer links
Motivating unique groups of
workers (1)
Motivating Professionals
• Characteristics of professionals
– Strong and long-term commitment to their
field of expertise
– Loyalty is to their profession, not to the
employer
– Have the need to regularly update their
knowledge
– Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to
5:00 pm.
Motivating unique groups of
workers (2)
Motivating Contingent Workers
• Opportunity to become a permanent
employee
• Opportunity for training
• Equity in compensation and benefits
Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage
Employees
• Employee recognition programs
• Provision of sincere praise
Designing appropriate rewards
• Open-book management - a motivational
approach in which an organisation’s financial
statements (the “books”) are shared with all
employees.
• Employee recognition programs - programs based
on personal attention and expression of interest,
approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
• Pay-for-performance programs - variable
compensation plans that pay employees on the
basis of some performance measure.
Summary
Today:
• Early motivation theories
• Modern motivation theories
• Designing motivating jobs
• Contemporary issues in motivation
Tomorrow:
• Leading - communication
Reading
• Please read Chapter 15 before tomorrow’s
lecture.