Work in the 21st Century
Chapter 8
The Motivation to Work
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Module 8.1:
An Introduction to Motivation
• Central position of motivation in
psychology
• Motivation concerns conditions
responsible for variations in intensity,
quality, & direction of ongoing behavior
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Brief History of Motivation
Theory in I-O Psychology
• First theories anchored motivation in
notions of instincts (Freud)
• “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like
need, motive, & drive (Maslow)
• Behaviorist approach (Skinner)
• Field theory (Lewin)  Group dynamics
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Metaphors For Motivation
• Person as machine
– People’s behaviors & actions are
reflexive & involuntary, performed
without conscious awareness
– Pushed by internal needs
– Pulled by environmental stimuli
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Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d)
• Person as judge
– Individual seeks information about extent
person & others perceived as responsible for
positive & negative events
– Hypothesizes about foundation
for events & actions of others
• Person as intentional
– Develops goals & plans
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Motivational Metaphors
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Meaning & Importance of
Motivation in the Workplace
• Motivation & performance
Situational
(Motivation x Ability) –
Constraints
= PERFORMANCE
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8
Motivation & Work-Life Balance
• Investigates whether satisfaction one
experiences at work is affected by
satisfaction one experiences in nonwork & vice versa
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Motivation & Attitudes
• Attitudes
– Relatively stable feelings or beliefs
directed toward specific persons, groups,
ideas, or jobs
– Attitudes include job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and job
involvement, which are covered in more
detail in Chapter 9
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Motivation & Personality
• Consistent relationships exist between
personality characteristics & performance
motivation
• Neuroticism negatively related to
performance motivation
• Conscientiousness positively related to
performance motivation
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Module 8.2: Motivational Theories
– Classic Approaches
• Person-as-machine theories
– Maslow’s need theory
• Internal mechanical theory
• All humans have basic set of needs that
express themselves over life span of
individual as internal “pushes” or drives
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Maslow’s Need Theory (5 Levels)
• Physiological needs
– Basic needs like food & water
• Security needs
– Need to produce a secure environment
• Love or social needs
– Desire to be accepted by others
• Esteem needs
– Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities
• Self-actualization
– Desire to develop capabilities to fullest
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Dilbert’s View on
Need Hierarchy Theory
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Maslow’s Need Theory
• Employer needs to know at what need level
individual worker is operating
• Group of workers may all be functioning at
different need levels
• Fits person-as-machine metaphor
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Variations on Maslow’s Theory
• Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966)
– 2 basic needs, not 5
– Needs are independent (not hierarchical)
– 1) Hygiene needs
• Maslow’s physical & security needs
– 2) Motivator needs
• Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs
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Variations on Maslow’s
Theory (cont'd)
• ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972)
– 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5
– Levels:
• Existence (E)
• Relatedness (R)
• Growth (G)
– Has not garnered much support
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Reinforcement Theory:
An External Mechanical theory
• Behavior depends on 3 elements:
stimulus, response, & reward
• Contingent reward
– Reward depends on response
• Intermittent & continuous rewards
– Intermittent rewards produce higher
performance levels
Martial Colomb/Getty Images
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Person-as-Scientist Models
• Vroom’s VIE theory
– Valence: Strength of person’s preference for
particular outcome.
– Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between
performance & attainment of a certain outcome.
– Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort
and performance.
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Scientist Models (cont'd)
• Dissonance theory
– Suggests that tension exists when
individuals hold incompatible thoughts
– Assumes that individuals always seek
some sense of “balance” & will direct
their behavior toward seeking &
maintaining that balance
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Scientist Models:
Equity Theory
• Equity Theory: Individuals look at world in
terms of comparative inputs & outcomes
• Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of
“comparison others”
Figure 8.1
Mathematical
Description of
Equity Theory
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Equity Theory of Employee
Reactions to Inequitable Payment
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Module 8.3: Modern Approaches
to Work Motivation
• Person-as-Intentional Approach
– Goal-setting theory
• Notion of goal as a motivational force
• Distinction between goal acceptance & goal
commitment
Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images
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Figure 8.2:
Diagram of Goal Theory
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Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd)
• Feedback loop important between
knowledge of results & intermediate stages
• Control theory
– Based on principle of feedback loop
– Assumes individuals compare a standard to an
actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring
outcome into agreement with a standard
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Relationships Among Needs,
Motives, Goals, & Performance
Figure 8.3
The Relationships among Needs,
Motives, Goals, and Performance
Source: Locke & Latham (1996).
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Control Theories &
the Concept of Self-Regulation
Figure 8.4
Simple Control
Systems Model
Source: Taylor,
Fisher, & Ilgen (1984)
• Self-regulation is compatible with control theory
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Self-Efficacy in Modern
Motivation Theory
• Self-Efficacy is a belief in one’s
capacity to perform a specific task or
reach a specific goal
– Developed & increased by:
• Mastery experiences
• Modeling
• Social persuasion
• Physiological states
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Action Theory (Rubicon theory)
• Broad consideration of role of intention in
motivated behavior & connection between
intention & action
• Action phases in active goal pursuit
–
–
–
–
Predecisional
Postdecisional
Actional
Evaluative
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Action Theory (cont'd)
• Action has 2 elements
– Action process
Figure 8.5
The Action Process
Source: Frese & Zapf (1994)
– Action structure
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Common Themes in
Modern Approaches to Motivation
• Intention plays key role in motivated behavior
• Concept of feedback critical in considering anything
but the simplest act at one point in time
• Theory should include element of person-as-scientist
• Theory should include concept of self-assessment
• Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate”
motivation theory
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Module 8.4:
Practical Issues in Motivation
• Motivation can be measured
• Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ)
– Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation
• Desire to learn
• Mastery
• Other referenced goals
• Competitiveness
• Worry
• Emotionality
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Table 8.3: Sample Items from the
Motivational Trait Questionnaire
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Cross-Cultural Issues in
Motivation
• Hofstede’s cultural theory
– Cultures differ on 5 dimensions
D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images
• Collectivism/individualism
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Masculinity/femininity
• Power dimensions
• Long-term vs. short-term orientation
– Application to MTQ
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Cross-Cultural Issues in
Motivation (cont'd)
• Types of motivational practices employed
by managers across all cultures
–
–
–
–
Differential distribution of rewards
Participation in goal setting & decision making
Design & redesign of jobs & organizations
Quality improvement
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Generational Differences &
Work Motivation
• Generation
– Defined by group
members who share
birth years &
significant life events
– e.g., Baby Boomers,
Generation Xers,
Generation Yers
D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images
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Generational Differences (cont'd)
• Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers -- Initial
Research indicates that:
– Younger employees appear to be more “me”
oriented
– Today’s workers value “pride in work” less
than workers of 1974
– Work is less important now than 25 years ago
– Work becomes less idealized as workers age
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Motivational Interventions
• Contingent rewards
• Job Enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics)
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Task feedback
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Motivational Interventions (cont'd)
• Productivity Measurement &
Enhancement System (ProMES)
– Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback
to increase motivation & performance
– Evidence shows significant gains in
productivity following use of ProMES
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ProMES
Steps for Implementation
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Forming a design team
Identifying objectives
Identifying indicators
Defining contingencies
Designing the feedback system
Giving & responding to feedback
Monitoring the system
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