State, Media and
Politics
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Objectives of this
lecture
To introduce key concepts: ideology,
democracy
To introduce normative theories of the
press
Introduce the laws and institutions in
place to express this theory of the press
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Ideology
A system of ideas or way of thinking about how to
relate politics and society
May be consensual, or conflictual
Unitary: where one culture is dominant, or Plural:
minority
Ideologies define what we take as commonsense, as
moral ‘telos’ or goal
They rationalize why we choose to live together in a
society, and how we choose to organize the power in
that society
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Democracy
An ideology
A system of ideas about political organization
of a demos: ( greek: peoples) and kratos (
rule)
Literally and most simply: Rule by the People
Core assumptions:
 Reflect the enlightenment: centrality of the
idea of individual autonomy
 Also the theoretical social good of equality
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Key features of
Modern
Democracies
Elections
of representatives to govern
by majority
By voters consisting of entire adult
population
Whose votes carry equal weight
Who are allowed to vote in secret
without coercion
For Limited Terms: accountable to reelection or rejection
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Democracy around the
World
Now Over 180 democracies: the dominant form of
political organizations among nation states
Dominance is less than 100 years old
Just over half the world’s population lives in a
democratic state: yet fewer than 50 countries offer a
relatively free press
Right to vote has not become universal in most
Western democracies until after 2nd World War
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Myths and Reality
Myth: there is one form of democracy
Reality: 311 different definitions of
democracy in the study of political
communication; at least eight different
historical models of democracy
Conclusion: democracy is culturallybounded
Modern Democracies sharply vary in their
protections of minorities from majorities
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Press and Democracy
around the World
media played role in rise of modern nation state,
emergence of democracies, Fall of Berlin Wall, fall of
communism, fall of Milosevic in Serbia– are media
playing a roll in beating back fundamentalist Islamic
militantism? Or its spread ( Al Jazeera)
creating an independent media is an important
communication goal in Eastern Europe, South Africa
and other regimes
But, as seen above, most countries choose a
different model than the Western one of a free press:
why?
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Normative Theories of
the Media
A type of theory, or strain of ideology,
which describes the ideal way for media
systems to be structured and operated
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Four Theories of the
Press
Libertarian
Social Responsibility
Authoritarian
Development/Communist
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Authoritarian Theory
Watch for this on your handouts in the
Video Today
The media are a tool of the authority
A range of Authoritarian Regimes:
‘benign’ kings/rulers: Sauds in Saudi Arabia
 Military dictatorships
 One party states
 Dictators

C A Murray
CMNS 130
Authoritarian Views
hold that the ruling class is more discerning:
rabble must be contained
criticism and public dissent is not tolerated if it
jeapardizes social cohesion, stability,
economic growth or the common good
press may be licensed: censorship before
publication is prevalent
criticizing government programs undermines
the peace
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Sanctions of
Authoritarian Regimes
reporters and citizens may be jailed: all
dissent is illegitimate ( range of dissent
tolerated may vary)
still present in some developing countries in
Asia, Middle East and Latin America and
Africa
Media become a part of the apparatus of the
State\dominant military , economic or political
class.
associated with totalitarianism: forms of
military, royal dictatorship * see L & G p. 74
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Libertarian Theory
A theory that the press are an extension
of the individual’s absolute right to
freedom of the Press
At its most extreme: no role for the state
Makes no distinction between individual’s right to
freedom of expression or a private media
corporation’s right to freedom of expression: irony:
corporations have most often spoken up on individual
freedoms
Protects security of private ownership
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Libertarian II
Related to classical liberalism theory
Classical Liberalism has a romantic view of
the individual as good, rational and
completely able to distinguish good from bad
Like one of its theorists: Milton: believes that
debate is always fair and that good and
truthful arguments win out over lies and
deceit
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Libertarian III
Wants to unleash the market/freedom of
expression for the media
Opposes censorship in any form: no pre or
post censorship
Democracy is best achieved by radical
protection of individual freedoms and
advancement of the market
Free people, left to their own devices, will
make economically and intellectually
profitable choices
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Libertarian 2
Freedom from state intervention is the central
slogan
Media are seen as a commodity like any other:
privately owned, in pursuit of profit , subject only to
the ‘invisible hand’ of the market
Freedom of press is absolute: that is, press may
promote ideas of their own choosing– citizens are
able to make enlightened choices of media tailored to
their own beliefs
Many vestiges of 19th century libertarian ideology
remain in the newspaper industry; modern platforms
of Alliance and Libertarian parties, Fraser Institute in
review of media
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Libertarian Model
Closest analogy to print media ( books,
newspapers)
Closest country analogy is US
Only time these views are suspended
is in time of war/extraordinary upheaval
In times of WAR, state may license,
censor or otherwise suppress news “ in
the interests of national security”
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Problems with the
Libertarian Model
historically, costs of entry to publishing rose
competition was not free: oligopoly and
monopolies arose
shocks of Great Depression challenged this
consensus
model of economic rationality underpinning
behavior began to unravel (Freud, Resistance
etc)
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Problems/ Libertarian
View
central analytic question: does a system
of private ownership promote diversity
of expression and high standards of
journalism? Are citizens “ enlightened”
enough to make choices? How well
does an exclusively market dominated
media system media serve the public?
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Social Responsibility
Focuses less on the individual than the welfare of society
Concerned about equality ( where overall benefit of the many
may override the individual)
Sees a more extensive role for the State
Related to reform liberalism and rise of electronic era
Central belief is that the media are not a commodity like any
other: central to democratic expression; therefore a public good
Democracy must protect the interests of the majority against the
harm of extreme individual freedoms; but also promote diversity
of views, protect rights of minorities
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Social Responsibility 2
Freedom For the pursuit of the democratic social good is the
central slogan ( not freedom from)
Associated with the rise and sunset of the welfare state:
protection of basic economic and cultural freedoms
Freedom of the press is not absolute: it is responsible to society
Regulation may be necessary in the social interest ( and
especially in case of spectrum scarcity)
Vestiges of the social responsibility model remain in
broadcasting media
Generally: social responsibility model applies to radio, TV
industries around the world
Internationally, Canada and Europe and some of the Asian
countries ( eg Singapore) conform to this view.
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Key Assumptions of
Social Responsibility
Models
Must regulate competition to ensure sufficient
diversity in market place ( perhaps order sale)
Must create codes of fair treatment by media,
and promote ethics and training in journalism
Must protect against flagrant abuses ( false
advertising, libel, hate crimes)
Promote public subsidy or public not for profit
ownership of media where underrepresented
minorities frozen out
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Problems with the
Social Responsibility
Model
despite efforts to impose it on the newspaper
industry in Canada and US, this model has
not become prevalent across all media
trend to global free trade and deregulation is
undercutting models of social responsibility
now often narrowly interpreted as the
industry’s right to develop and regulate their
own codes of conduct (self-regulation by
professionals)
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Problems Cont’d
private sector in broadcasting, which has
represented a so-called ideal type of social
responsibility regulation of the media in
Canada has not achieved certain democratic
or national goals
analytic question: when social responsibility
conflicts with the profit motive, what then?
Classic argument: leave it to the educated
elites
C A Murray
CMNS 130
Four Types of Political
Control over the Media

Legal/Regulatory Controls over Freedom of
Expression
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
 Regulation
 Voluntary Controls

News Manufacture:
 Indirect State Economic Influence
 Election Regulation/Marketing and
Persuasion

C A Murray
CMNS 130
Sources:
C A Murray
CMNS 130
BACK TO LECTURE
NOTES
C A Murray
CMNS 130
BACK TO INDEX
C A Murray
CMNS 130