MEXICO - 1
Bellringer
Identify:
• 2 peninsulas
• 1 river
• 3 major bodies
of water
• 2 mountain
ranges
Today we will …
Objectives
Agenda
• Explore political history of
1. Introduction
Mexico
• Explore political
institutions of Mexico
2. Folders A & B
3. Closure – open note
quiz
HW: Watch “Mexico: Motive
to Migrate” & questions &
FRQ outline
Why study Mexico?
• Mexico is the second largest country in Latin America
• Largest Spanish speaking country in the world
• Mexico is the US’ most important trading partner, after
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Canada
History of Revolution (like Iran, China and Russia)
State-led development & one party rule (like China &
Russia)
Slow, gradual process of democratization
Major oil producer & exporter
Geographic Influence
• Mountains & Deserts – make communication and
transportation difficult; promotes regionalism; limits areas
where productive agriculture is possible
• Varied Climates – cold, dry mountains to tropical rain
forests because of Mexico’s varying terrain and long
expanse from North to South
• Natural Resources – petroleum, silver, copper, gold,
lead, zinc, natural gas, timber
• U.S.-Mexican Border – 2,000 mile long border means
relationships are inevitable (migration, dependency,
conflict)
FOLDER A
Political History
Colonial Era (colonialism)
• Cultural Heterogeneity – Spanish took control over
numerous indigenous populations dominated by the Aztecs once they
conquered Tenochtitlan
• Mestizo – ethnic mixture of two peoples (European &
indigenous)
• Catholicism – most Spaniards settled in or near Mexico city, but
Spanish priests settled throughout Mexico’s hinterland converting the
population to Christianity. Priests developed strong relationships with
the people of Mexico
• Economic Dependency – all trade done with Spain
• Spanish Hierarchy – elaborate political & social status
hierarchy structure
Sovereignty, Authority, & Power
Legitimacy
• Viceroy – Governor appointed by Spanish king
during colonial period
• Centralized, authoritarian rule with virtually no
participation by the indigenous population
“MEXICO”
• Instability & Legitimacy Issues – Spanish left and took
hierarchy structure with them, reorganizing government was difficult
task, Mexico had 36 presidents from 1833-1855
• Rise of Military – Instability led to military control, ex. Santa
Anna
• U.S. Domination – US challenges Mexican land claims,
Mexican-American War (1846-1848), Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo
(US gets TX, NM, CA, AZ, UT, part of CO)
• Liberals vs. Conservatives – Constitution of 1857 based
on democratic principles. Liberal president Benito Juarez “liberalizes”
Mexico. Conservatism reflected in joint French, Spanish, and English
takeover of Mexico under Maximilian (1864-1867). After Maximilian’s
execution Juarez brought back to power but liberal/conservative
struggle would continue
“The Porfiriato”
Porfirio Diaz
• Military general under Benito Juarez
• Staged military coup in 1876
• Instituted himself as president of Mexico,
promised he would serve no more than one
term
• Ruled Mexico for 34 years with an iron hand
• Cientificos – young, educated advisors of Diaz
that believed in bringing scientific and
economic progress to Mexico
Influences of Porfiriato
• Stability – Diaz dictatorship ended years of conflict and
chaos
• Authoritarianism – no sharing of political power beyond
small, closed elite group
• Foreign Investment/Economic Growth – cientificos
encouraged entrepreneurship and foreign investment,
primarily from the U.S., resulted in growth of business and
industry
• Growing Gap between Rich & Poor – as a result of
development and industrialization
20th Century
• Porfirio Diaz ousted in coup by other elites dissatisfied
with Diaz’ rule and sensitive to the greed of the Porfirians
• Diaz abdicates to General Francisco Madero, a
landowner from Coahuila
• Revolution of 1910 begins and warlordism and chaos
would persist in Mexico until 1934
Revolution of 1910-1917
• Mexicans have admired revolutionary leaders throughout
their history.
• Revolutions in general are seen quite positively, and
charisma is highly valued as a leadership characteristic.
• Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) – helped legitimize the
revolution, served as an important source of government legitimacy
until the late 20th century
• Constitution of 1917 – created a democratic, three-branch
government, but allowed the PRI to stabilize and consolidate power
within the hands of its leaders.
Influences of the Mexican Revolution
• Patron-Client System
• Constitution of 1917
• Conflict with Catholic Church
• Establishment of the PRI
Patron-Client System
• In an effort to unseat Diaz, caudillos rose to challenge
each other for power.
• Popular leaders Pancho Villa & Emiliano Zapata emerged
leading peasant armies.
• Around each leader a patron-client system emerged that
involved large numbers of citizens
• Many caudillos were ultimately assassinated
(including Villa and Zapata)
• Large numbers of followers were also killed in the
competing world of the caudillos
Constitution of 1917
• Ended the Revolution
• Violence & Political Assassinations continued
• Mexican constitution very long and easily
amended
• Set up structure for Democratic Government
(Political Institutions resemble those of the U.S.)
• Three branches of Government
• Competitive Elections
• Most public officials directly elected by the people
Conflict with Church after Revolution
• Cristeros Rebellion (1920)
• Hundreds of Thousands Killed (Priests murdered)
• Liberals legally separate Church & State, viewed
church as a bastion of conservatism
• Forbid priests from voting
• Placed federal restrictions on church-affiliated schools
(parochial schools)
• Suspended religious services
• Priests continue to lead rebellions after Liberal
changes, contributes to chaos of 20th century
Establishment of PRI
• After years of conflict, President Calles brings
caudillos together for agreement in 1929
• Attempts to bring all caudillos under one big,
umbrella political party
• Bring stability through the idea of “passing around” power
from one leader to the next as presidency changed hands
• Sexenios – president could only serve one 6-year term
• Other leaders would be given major positions in
government to establish their influence
• PRI- “institutionalized” the revolution by stabilizing conflict
between leaders
Cardenas Upheaval (1934-1940)
• Succeeded Calles’ as president
• Stabilized and Radicalized Mexican politics
• Gave voice to peasant demands from the Revolution of
1910
• Charismatic leader
• “the Roosevelt of Mexico” as labeled by American
scholars
Cardenas’ Changes
• Redistribution of Land – land taken away from big landlords,
foreigners and redistributed as ejidos – collective land grants – to be worked
by peasants
• Nationalization of Industry – foreign business owners kicked out
of country, most industry put under control of the state. Ex: PEMEX – giant,
government controlled oil company
• Investment in Public Works – government builds roads, provides
electricity, creates public services to modernize Mexico
• Encouragement of Peasant & Union Organizations –
Cardenas welcomes their input in government, they form their own camarillas
with leaders that represent their interests on presidents’ cabinet
• Concentration of Power in Presidency – Cardenas stabilizes
presidency, when his sexenio was up he peacefully let go of power
FOLDER B
Political Institutions
Government Institutions
• Mexico is a federal republic, though state and local
governments have little independent power and few
resources
• Executive branch has held majority of the power
historically
• Legislative & Judicial branch followed the executive’s
lead, rubber-stamping most presidential decisions
• Mexico has traditionally been an authoritarian and
corporatist regime
Executive Branch
• Center of policy-making
• Sexenio: non-renewable six-year term (Under PRI similar to dictator)
• Selected successor
• Appointed officials to all positions of power in the government
• Named PRI candidates for other public offices
• Until mid-1970s Mexican presidents were above criticism and people revered them as
symbols of national progress and well-being
• Managed huge patronage system
• Control over “rubber-stamp” Congress
• President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) –relinquished number of traditional powers of the
president, including naming the PRI candidate for the 2000 election
• President Fox inherited the presidency in a time of transition
• President still viewed as all powerful, but blamed for shortcomings
• Harder for Fox to accomplish political goals without strong party support in the post-PRI
Congress
Bureaucracy
• About 1.5 million people employed by federal government (Most in
Mexico City)
• High & Middle level officials have a good deal of power
• Under PRI corruption and bribes quite common amongst officials in
the bureaucracy
• Parastatal Sector – semiautonomous government agencies that
often produce goods & services
• PEMEX
• After 1980’s oil bust reforms cut the number of para-statals, and many are
now privately owned
• President Fox tried unsuccessfully to privatize PEMEX
Legislature
• Bicameral
• Chamber of Deputies (500-member)
• 300 deputies from single-member districts (plurality)
• 200 deputies chosen by proportional representation
• Senate (128-member)
• 3 senators from each of the 31 states & the federal district(96)
• Remaining 32 selected by proportional representation
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All legislators directly elected
Until 1980s legislature remained under strict control of the president
PRI’s lost hold on legislature earlier than it did on the presidency
Lost majority in the Chamber of Deputies in 1997
Women in both houses has risen significantly since 1996 election law
required parties to sponsor female candidates
• Parties must run at least 30% female candidates for proportional representation
and single-member district elections
• 113 of 500 deputies in Chamber are female
• 20 of 128 Senators are also female
Judiciary
• Strong judicial branch necessary for a country to operate on the “Rule
of Law”
• Mexico does not have an independent judiciary or judicial review
system
• Most laws are federal, limiting the authority of state courts
• Supreme Court
• On paper has judicial review, but it never overrules important government policy
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or actions
Historically has been controlled by the executive branch
Judges appointed for life, but in practice resigned at the beginning of each
sexenio
President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) attempted to strengthen courts by
emphasizing the rule of law, he refused to interfere with court judgments and
President Fox continued this policy
Fox tried to work for an independent judiciary but seems to have come up short
on this endeavor
Military
• Dominated Mexican political life into the early 20th century
• PRI dramatically cutback the political power of generals (even former military
generals who became presidents acted to separate the military from politics)
• Calles and Cardenas de-politicized the military
• Continually moved generals to different regions of the country not allowing them to develop a
regional base of power
• Presidents traded favors with military officers to allow them economic power, if not political
power
• Government control of the military one of PRI’s most important
accomplishments
• Strong ties between military officers and drug barons
• Military heavily involved in drug-enforcement
• Patron-client system of favors and loyalty has led some military officers to accept money
from drug lords in return for allegiance and security
• General Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo (Head of anti-drug task force) arrested in 1997 on
accusations of protecting a drug lord
Political Parties
• Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)
• National Action Party (PAN)
• Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD)
PRI
• In power from 1920-2000
• Founded by coalition of elites led by President Calles
• Originally elites agreed to trade favors and pass around power from
one cacique to another (Sexenio)
• Corporatist structure
– interest groups woven into the structure
of the party. Party has ultimate authority, but other voices heard by bringing
interest groups under the umbrella of the party. Structure is not democratic,
but allows for more input into government than other types of
authoritarianism. Particularly since Cardenas peasant and labor organizations
have been represented in the party and hold positions of responsibility
• Patron-client system
– party traditionally gets its support from
rural areas where patron-client system is still in control. Patron-client system
allowed the PRI to remain in control of Mexicans as long as majority of
population was rural-based, this began to change in the late 1980s
PAN (Right of Center)
• Founded in 1939
• Represents business interests opposed to centralization
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and anti-clericalism
PAN support strongest in the north
PAN generally considered PRI’s opposition to the Right
PAN candidate Vicente Fox won 2000 presidential
election, Felipe Calderon won 2006 election
Platform
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Regional autonomy
Less government intervention in the economy
Clean & fair elections
Good rapport with Catholic Church
Support for private and religious education
PRD (Left of Center)
• PRD considered PRI’s opposition to the Left
• Presidential candidate in 1988 & 1994 was Cuahtemoc Cardenas
(son of Lazaro Cardenas)
• He was ejected from the PRI for demanding reform that emphasized social justice and
populism
• In 1988 Cardenas won 31.1% of the official vote, and PRD captured 139 seats in the
Chamber of Deputies (500 total)
• Many believe had it been an honest election Cardenas would have won
• PRD has been plagued by poor organization, lack of charismatic
leadership, and most importantly the lack of an economic alternative
to the market-oriented policies of the PRI & PAN
• Andres Lopez Obrador, former mayor of Mexico City, was the PRD
candidate for president in the 2006 election. He lost by a slim margin
to Calderon (PAN)
Voter Profiles
• PRI – small town or rural, less educated, older, poorer
• PAN – from the north, middle-class professional or
business, urban, better educated (at least high school,
some college) religious (or those less strict regarding
separation of church & state)
• PRD – younger, politically active, from the central states,
some education, small town or urban
MEXICO - 2
Bellringer
What is a synonym or description of:
1. “porfiriato”
2. “caudillos”
3. PRI
4. PRD
5. PAN
When you are done, please turn in your Mexico vocab
& “Motive to Migrate”/Migration FRQ HW.
Today we will …
Objectives
Agenda
• Explore citizens and
1. Review Folders C & D
political economy of
Mexico
• Explore key issues and
public policy for Mexico
2. Closure – FRQ practice
HW: Nigeria organizer &
vocab and Democratization
reading / venn diagram
FOLDER C
Citizens, Society and the State & Political Economy
Citizens, Society, & the State
• Traditionally Mexican citizens have interacted with government
through patron-client system
• Because camarillas so interwoven in Mexican politics, most people
have had some contact with government during their lives
• Clientelism has generally meant that the government had the upper
hand through its ability to determine which interests to respond to and
which to ignore
• Role of citizens in Mexico is changing as political parties have
become competitive and democracy becomes more firmly entrenched
Cleavages
• Urban vs. Rural – Mexico’s political structure put into place in
early 20th century when most of population was rural. PRI and patron-client
system were intended to control large numbers of illiterate peasants in
exchange for small favors from politicos. Today Mexico is 75% urban, with a
literacy rate of about 90%. Urban voters less likely to support PRI, more
receptive to political and economic reform
• Mestizo vs. Amerindian –
only about 10% of Mexicans
speak indigenous languages, but about 30% consider themselves
Amerindians. Amerindians marginalized, predominantly rural, and poor. This
cleavage tends to define social class, with most of Mexico’s wealth in the
hands of the mestizo population.
• North vs. South –
north almost like a different country then the
area south of Mexico City. Majority of educated citizens and Mexico’s wealth
lies in the north. Southern Mexico primarily populated by Amerindians,
characterized and led by Zapatista Movement in Chiapas.
Political Participation
• Historically characterized by revolution & protest
• Mexican citizens have generally been subjects
under authoritarian rule of the political elite
• Citizens sometimes benefited from patronage, but
legitimate channels to policy-makers were few
• Today citizens participate through increasingly
legitimate and regular elections
Patron-Client System –Mexico
• Roots in warlordism and loyalty to caudillos during 19th century
• Each caudillo had supporters – in return for their loyalty – he granted favors
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to them
Establishment of Camarillas that still exist today
Mexican citizens participate in government through formal & informal
mechanisms
Emphasizes compromise among contending elites
“Behind the Scenes” conflict resolution
Distribution of political rewards to those willing to play by formal/informal
“rules of the game”
Keeps control in the hands of the elite
Elite has upper hand in deciding who gets favors and who doesn’t
Patron-client system still very important in determining the nature of political
participation
Modernization and legitimate democracy tend to break up the patron-client
system as networks get blurred in large population centers, and more formal
forms of participation are instituted
Camarillas
• Hierarchical network
• Exchange of offices and other benefits
• Within the PRI, up until the election of 2000, most
positions within the president’s cabinet were filled by
supporters or heads of camarillas that the president
wanted to appease
• Peasants in camarillas received jobs, financial assistance,
family advice, and even food & shelter in return for votes
for the PRI in the past
Media
• Part of the patron-client system under the PRI, with
rewards and favors doled out in return for political support
• Have become more independent as PRI-political structure
has been reorganized
• Many Mexicans have access to international newspapers,
magazines, CNN and the BBC
• “Toallagate” Scandal – overpriced towels at President Fox’s
mansion
• “Comes y te vas” – Fidel Castro-U.N. meeting incident
Cardenas and ISI
• Cardenas’ strategy of state-led development known as
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
• ISI
• Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced
goods from foreign competition
• Government ownership of key industries
• Government subsidies to domestic industries
• Government takes lead in promoting
industrialization (very little capital in private hands
during this era)
Economy
• “Mexican Miracle”
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1940-1960 economy grew more than 6% per year
Industrial production up nearly 9% per year during 1960s
Agricultural share of production down: 25% to 11%
Manufacturing share of production up: 25% to 34%
• Problems
• Growing gap between rich & poor
• Rapid/Unplanned Urbanization
Debt Crisis
• Mexican government borrowed heavily in
order to industrialize
• Most of the economic growth based on oil
economy
• Oil plummet in 1982, caused Mexican
economy to plummet as well
• 1987, Mexico over $107 billion in debt,
debt represented 70% of GNP
Economic Reform
• Begun by President Miguel de la Madrid in 1982, continued by
presidents Salinas & Zedillo (the tecnicos)
• Sharp cuts in Government Spending – according to
agreements with the IMF, World Bank, and the U.S. Mexico
greatly reduced government spending by eliminating public
enterprises, cutting government subsidies, and cutting
hundreds of thousands of public jobs
• Debt Reduction – with assistance from U.S. the Mexican
government reached agreement to reduce interest rates on
loans and allow for more lenient repayment plans. Mexico still
pays on average about $10 billion a year on loan interests
• Privatization – many government industries were privatized, in
1990 President Salinas returned the banks to the private
sector. Special laws like duty-free importing of components and
cheap labor led foreign companies to invest in Mexican
manufacturing plants
• Between 2001 and 2003 Mexico economy suffered from the post-
September 11 U.S. recession. In 2004, the economy grew by 4.1% but
an estimated 40% of the Mexican population still lived below the
poverty line
Foreign Policy
• GATT/WTO – in 1986 Mexico joined the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade, the precursor to the World Trade
Organization
• NAFTA – economics still dominates even in terms of foreign
policy
• Immigration & Drug Trafficking – America still the
key focus for Mexican foreign policy
FOLDER D
Preface, Sountry Overview & Issues and Public Policy
Political Institutions: Mexico in Transition
• Mexico characterized by economic and political transition
• Authoritarianism under the PRI has been replaced by competitive
elections, although political hostilities still exist
• Economic dependency and underdevelopment slowly being
transformed as public policies have been supportive of a free market
economy, yet a backlash against neoliberalism has continued
• “Developed”, “Developing”, or “Less Developed”, how do we classify
Mexico?
• Regime type: from corporatist structure to transitional democracy
How Development is Measured
• GNP per capita – estimate of a country’s total economic output divided by its total
population, converting to a single currency, usually the U.S. dollar. Does not take into account what
goods & services can actually be purchased with local currency.
• PPP – Purchasing Power Parity – takes into account cost of living in a particular country figuring
out what it costs to buy the same goods in different countries (Mexico is $9800 per year)
• HDI – Human Development Index – longevity, knowledge, income (Mexico’s literacy rate is 94%
for men & 90.5% for women, life expectancy is 72.4 years for men and 78 years for women
• Economic Dependency – a less developed country is often dependent on developed
countries for economic support and trade. Balanced trade is generally the key, a country is said to
be “developing” when it begins relying less on the stronger country to keep it afloat financially
• Mexico is in the middle in terms of its development, it is generally
considered to be a “developing” country that has shown gradual
improvement in all of its indices
Transitional Democracy
• Political Accountability
• Political Competition
• Political Freedom
• Political Equality
• Mexico has developed some democratic characteristics in recent
years, but still has many distinctions present from its authoritarian
history. Longevity of democratic practices is another way of
determining whether a country is a stable democracy, usually 40
years or more. Mexico does not yet fit this description.
Elections
• Citizens in Mexico directly elect the president, Chamber of Deputy Representatives,
and Senators as well as most local & state officials
• Elections are generally competitive, specifically in urban areas
• Members of congress elected through dual system of “first-past-the-post” and
proportional representation
• Proportional representation was increased in a major reform law in 1986, a change that gave power to
political parties that challenged PRI control
• Each of Mexico’s 31 states elects three senators, 2 are determined by majority vote,
the other is determined by whichever party receives the second highest number of
votes
• 32 senate seats are determined nationally through a system of proportional
representation that divides the seats according to the number of votes cast for each
party (128 Senate seats in total)
• In the Chamber of Deputies, 300 seats are determined by plurality within single-
member districts, and 200 are chosen by proportional representation
Issues of Democracy
• Election Reform
• CFE (Federal Election Reform) – created as an independent
regulatory body to safeguard honest and accurate election results
• Campaign Finance Restriction – laws that limit campaign
contributions
• International Watch Teams – so Mexico could convince other
countries that elections are fair and competitive
• Election monitoring – done by opposition party members
Fox’s Legacy
• Pluralism
• Decentralization
• Electoral Reform
• Rule of Law
• Anti-Narcotics Policy
“Ya Basta” Zapatista Movement Lives On
(EZLN)
• EZLN – began in 1994 in Chiapas in protest of the signing of the NAFTA
treaty
• Viewed agreement as a continued exploitation of landowners and PRI bosses
• EZLN captured four towns demanding jobs, land, housing, food, health,
education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice and peace
• Rebellion originally based on ethnicity – Amerindian – but spread to other
factions of society
• Zapatista supporters were black ski masks to hide their identity from the
government
• Although a moderate truce was announced with the government, the Fox
administration was unable to negotiate a settlement to the dispute with the
Zapatistas despite numerous efforts to do so
• Zapatistas represent the stance against all that is still wrong with Mexican
politics
NIGERIA - 1
Bellringer
Name the 3 largest
ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Name 2 countries that
border Nigeria.
Name 1 European
country that colonized
Nigeria.
Today we will …
Objectives
• Explore political history
and political institutions of
Nigeria.
Agenda
1. Introduction
2. Folders E & F
3. Closure – open note
quiz
HW: Nigerian National
Anthem & questions
Why study Nigeria?
• “National Question”: differing opinions about
how political power should be distributed and how
the government should be constructed.
• In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run
deeper than other countries
• Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor
its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and
how
• Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one
nation
• Regional disagreements & hostilities
• Problems traditionally solved by military force and
authoritarianism
Geographic Influences
• Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people,
area is predominantly Muslim.
• Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also
predominantly Muslim.
• Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.
• Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian,
and 20% native religions.
• Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some
Protestant Christians as well
• Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small
minority groups.
FOLDER E
Why Study Nigeria? And Country Overview
Constitutionalism
• First constitution written in 1914
• Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995
• Current constitution written in 1995 has been heavily
amended since its inception
• Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding set of
principles has eluded Nigeria
• Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend
constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking
• Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much
harder to answer
Legitimacy
• Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960,
this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult
• Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or
religious lines.
• Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs.
Military rule/Personalized authority
• Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens
question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank
accounts
• General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)
• General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)
Prebendalism
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Personalized system of rule
Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”
Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty
Local government officials gain support of villagers by
dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for
supporting their patron bosses
• Most favors exchanged by political elites
• Corruption and informal influence rampant
• Does however represent established form of political
participation
Societal Characteristics & Concerns
• Poverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in
absolute poverty.
• Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria
now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.
• Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS
sufferers live in Nigeria.
• Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are
83% men, 71% for women)
Political Cleavages
• Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and
Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different
languages
• Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.
• Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines
• Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and
political protest takes place in cities
• Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from
access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and
ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to
state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.
FOLDER F
Historical Overview
Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”
• Trade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River &
Ocean Access
• Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact
with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle
• Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity
• Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local
governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)
• Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and
democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.
Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”
• Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination
British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them
accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’
responsibility to the people
• Interventionist State – colonialist trained chiefs to operate government to
achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not
have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should
passively accept actions of rulers.
• Individualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about
personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community
Colonial Era continued
• Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split
between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in
the north, Christianity in the south.
• Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant
groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.
• British pitted groups against each other by promising
rewards to some groups but not others.
• Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century
appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and
supporters of decolonization
Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political
Traditions”
• Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under
parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary
system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and
independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the
president
• Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani
dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition
with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added
tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military
officers seized power.
Independence Era continued
• Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by
announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was
assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (19671970)
• Personalized Rule/Corruption
• Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country,
Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to
state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not
work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.
• Economic dependence on Oil
Political Culture
• Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)
• Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and
clients, corruption becomes problematic
• EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion
of the oil revenues.
• State Control/Underdeveloped Society
• Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside government control.
• In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political participation, religious
activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracy
• Modernity vs. Tradition
• Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era
• Religious Conflict
• Geographic Influence
NIGERIA - 2
Bellringer
1. What is the “national question” of Nigeria? How does
the history and political culture of Nigeria complicate
this issue?
2. What is prebendalism? How is this similar to Mexico?
Today we will …
Objectives
Agenda
• Explore the political
1. Folders G & H
institutions of Nigeria
• Explore citizens and
political economy of
Nigeria
2. Closure – FRQ practice
HW: Study for Exam next
block
FOLDER G
Political Institutions
Institutions of National Government
• Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)
• Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)
• Executive has been most dominant traditionally
• Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive,
legislative, and judicial branch
• 2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a
strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and
independent judiciary
• Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state &
local governments are completely dependent on the central government
“Federal Character”
• Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure
• Federalism promises power-sharing
• Allows citizens more contact points with government
• “Federal Character”
• Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups
• Nigerian Constitutional Provisions
• Senators represent diverse states
• Representatives elected from diverse districts
• President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts
• Negatives of Federalism
• Federalism bloats bureaucracy
• Promotes corruption within bureaucracy
• Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups
• Legislative branch suffers from gridlock
• Competition over government resources
Federalism
• Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central
government devolves some authority to the state & local
governments
• Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own
resources
• Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited
• Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of
local and state governments
• This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners
• North has few resources and very little revenue to share
• Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs
Executive Branch
• 1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary
system based on British model
• Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the
legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary
authority to rule
• Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and
rise above weak party system
• U.S. presidential model with two-term limits
• 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup,
set precedent for military coups and military rule
• Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985
• Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993
• Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo
Executive
• Military Rule
• Patrimonialism
• 7 military rulers have all ruled
• Generals/Presidents head of
differently
• All promised transition to
democracy
• Only Obasanjo in 1979 and
General Abubakar in 1999
delivered democratic transition
• Generals Buhari (1983-85),
Babangida (1985-93), and
Abacha (1993-98) used
repression and violence
• All military & civilian regimes
concentrated power in hands of
the executive
patron-client system
• Dispense government jobs and
resources as rewards to political
supporters
• Cabinet positions & bureaucratic
chiefs part of president’s
patronage system
• Patrimonialism in Nigeria is
unstable which has led to
recurring coups
Bureaucracy
• British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial
period
• Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy
• Civil service sector continued to grow after independence
• Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery
is common.
• Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client
system, Prebendalism.
Bureaucracy
• Parastatals
• Most government agencies are
•
•
•
•
parastatals, or corporations
owned by the state. (Similar to
Mexico)
Provide commercial and social
welfare services
Board members are appointed by
government ministers, and
corporate executives are part of
the president’s patronage system
Parastatals provide public utilities
such as water, electricity, public
transportation, and agricultural
subsidies
Control major industries such as
steel, defense industry, and
petroleum
• State Corporatism
• Corporatism – authoritarian
political system that allows for
political input from selected
interest groups outside the
government structure
• In Nigeria, this input is provided
by parastatals, because they are
controlled by the government it is
referred to as State
Corporatism
• Parastatals insure that the state
controls private interest as well
as fulfills social & economic
functions
• Parastatals serve as contact
point between government &
business interests, but state
ultimately controls these
interactions (Corrupt & inept)
Legislature
• A parliamentary system until 1979
• Replaced by a bicameral legislature
• Nigerian legislature under military governments have had
no power, under civilian government they have been
unable to check power of the president
• Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate
and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury
and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed
for accepting kickbacks for a government contract
Legislature
• Senate
• National Assembly
• 109 Senators
• Formerly called House of
• 3 from each of the 36
Representatives
• 360 member
representatives
• Single-member districts,
elected by plurality vote
• Only 23 of the 360
representatives are women
(2003)
•
•
•
•
states
1 from Abuja district
Directly elected by popular
vote
Senators are ethnically and
religiously diverse
Only 4 of 109 Senators
were women as of 2003
elections
Judiciary
• Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy
• Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup
•
•
•
•
•
quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
Judicial review was suspended
Presidential cronies appointed as justices
Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the
Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory
Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court
Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British
model
• In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was
detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics
attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system
• In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained
and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided
over by military officers
Military
• Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria
• “Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the
responsibility of the executive branch
• “Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders
have been critical of military control of political power.
• Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often
have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.
• Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military
personnel around and appointed senior officers through his
patronage system
• Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.
• Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and
conflict
Political Parties
• Factionalism led to creation of many political parties
• Failure to create coherent party system
• Parties formed and faded around personalities
• Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious
cleavages
• Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a
number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998
• In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections
of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in
two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election
• This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible
to run candidates in the 2003 election
Political Parties
• People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
•
•
•
•
•
Well-established Party
Began running candidates in 1998
Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)
Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election
PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors
throughout the country
• Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP
• All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
• General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo
• Received about 32% of the vote
• His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an
Igbo from the Southeast
• Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance
(APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party
• Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did
receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections
Elections & Electoral Procedures
• Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.
• National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National
Assembly, and senators from their states.
National Elections
• Presidential Elections
• After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another
in 2003.
• If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot
election takes place.
• President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states
• A purely regional candidate can not win
• Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria
National Elections continued
• Legislative Elections
• Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one
from federal capital territory of Abuja
• Elected by direct popular vote
• 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of
Representatives)
• Elected from single member districts by plurality vote
• Regional representation dominates in both houses.
• Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
• Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria
Election Fraud
• Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or
delay
• Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few
elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be
• Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader
of the ANPP
• Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
• Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names to be
fraudulent during 2003 elections
• International teams concluded elections were corrupt
• Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes
• Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious
FOLDER H
Citizens, Society and the State & Political Economy
Political Institutions
• Multiple regimes throughout its history
• North & West – well-developed large states and
hereditary monarchies
• Hausa in west organized into powerful trading citystates
• South – small, communal kinship-based rule
• British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading
on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule
under British direction)
• Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism
• Government structure formally federalist &
democratic, but does not generally operate as such
• British controlled economy led to current state
controlled economy
Protests & Social Movements
• Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
• Targeted the international oil companies, especially in
the Niger River Delta
• In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied
ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days
• Ethnic groups
• Women’s Movement
• President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003
campaign to include more women in cabinet and
bureaucratic offices
• Nigerian legislature has very low female
representation
• 6.4% in House of Representatives
• 3.7% in Senate
Interest Groups
• Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics
• A large number of civil society organizations often
cooperate with political parties
• Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
• Christian Association of Nigeria protested when
General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the
Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to
member
• Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to
support the shari’a court system
• Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to
have an impact on political life through labor unions,
student groups, and populist groups.
Interest Groups
• Labor Unions
• Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s
• Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the
influence of labor unions
• A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates
approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders
• In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt
to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers
• Business Interests
• Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes,
in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class
• Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated
outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the
1990s
• Human Rights Groups
• Promote democratic reforms
• Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and
professional groups (doctors, lawyers)
• These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha
Mass Media
• Nigeria has well-developed, independent press
• General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime
by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria
in 1994
• Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country
• Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south
• Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians
• All 36 states have their own radio stations
Public Policy
• Top-down policy-making process.
• Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through
channels established by patron clientelism
• Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior
officials
• State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils,
they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage
structured pyramids includes:
• “Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”
• Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore,
protesting system can be dangerous
• Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era when
the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources
benefited Great Britain
Economic Issues
• Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s
wealth
• Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in
poverty
• Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials
• Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict
• In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all
the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account”
(Revenue Sharing)
• Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy
was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the south
Economic Issues
• Oil
• Oil wealth during the 1970s
gave Nigeria international
leverage
• OPEC member
• Conflicts in Middle East have
made Nigeria more important
as a trade partner for other
countries since 1970s
• Lack of economic
diversification hurts Nigeria
when oil prices drop
• DEBT – as a result of drop in
oil prices and lack of revenue
surplus
• Structural Adjustment
• 1980s, Nigeria seeks
assistance from international
organizations to deal with debt
crisis
• World Bank & IMF
involvement
• Restructure & diversification
of Nigerian economy
• Privatize parastatals
• Cut government spending
• “Shock Treatment” not very
successful
• Parastatals still under
government control
• Debt repayment had to be
restructured
Reforms
Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
• Further privatization of state-owned industry
• Limitations on economic controls of the central
government
• Money taken by General Abacha returned by
foreign banks and placed in the state treasury
• Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
• Increase in public wages
• Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
• Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized
oil prices