Technical Writing
Vasile Nistor PhD
Assistant Professor
BioMedical Engineering
CEAS / SEEBME
Discourse & Rhetoric
• Latin: discursus – “running to and fro”
– describes written and spoken communication
• Rhetoric - the art of discourse
– Greek - ῥητορικός (rhētorikós)
– aims to improve the facility of speakers/writers who
attempt to:
– inform,
– persuade,
– motivate
– particular audiences in specific situation
Why Technical Writing?
• Build on existing knowledge
• Propagate the knowledge
– Co-workers/Team members
– Sales/Marketing personnel
– Customers
• Technical Work ≠ Technical Writing
Technical writing
•
•
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Journal paper
Thesis
Dissertation
Report
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
The job of any piece of writing is
to move the reader from one understanding
of a topic to a new understanding.
A
B
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Consider this example:
if you wanted to slide a box across a floor to a
specific spot . . .
A
B
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
You could figure out the amount and direction of the
force you would need to apply to the box to get it to
move to that spot by knowing a few things . . .
A
B
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
By understanding something about the forces exerted on the box and
by having a good idea of where you wish to go, you could move the box in
a predictable way.
Applied
Force
Gravity
Distance
New
Location
Mass
Friction
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
The same is true in writing: by knowing something about the
elements involved in the reading act you can predictably
influence the outcome.
Reader
Purpose
A
Writer
Message
B
Know your Audience !
•
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Who is going to read the report?
What is the level of their current knowledge?
How much information is needed?
What background information to include?
Why is the reader reading the report?
Is the document supposed to inform or
convince?
• How much time does the reader have to read it?
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Who is the
Reader?
Reading
Act
Who is the
Writer?
What is the
Message?
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Who is the reader?
What do they want to know?
What do they need to know?
What do they already know?
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
What is the message?
What is the purpose of writing?
•Inform
•Persuade
•Motivate
What data / evidence is necessary to support this purpose?
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Who is the writer?
What does the text say about the writer?
Every piece of writing produced, like it or not, presents the
reader with a picture of the writer. This picture can leave a
positive or negative impression on the reader.
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Who is the writer?
What picture does the text present of the writer?
•Knowledgeable?
•Clear and Fluent?
•Authoritative?
Rhetoric
HOW WRITING WORKS
Who is the writer?
What picture of the writer does the text present?
•
•
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Mechanical errors?
Inconsistent tense
Uneven or inappropriate tone?
1st or 2nd person (versus 3rd person)?
Report Format
STYLE AND FORMAT CONSIDERATIONS
Unless otherwise directed, adopt a
format style from a publication in your
discipline:
Nearly every engineering discipline has authoritative journals. These
publications have specific formatting styles either explicitly defined in
a style guide or implicitly present in examples from the publication.
Report Format
STYLE AND FORMAT CONSIDERATIONS
Use a Journal Model for:
• Required Elements
• Citation Style
• Figure and Table Style
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Abstract / Executive Summary
Introduction
Body
Summary/Conclusion/Recommendations
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Abstract or Executive Summary
A distillation of the whole of piece of writing
How are they used?
What information can I expect to find in this report?
Examples are available at www.eng.odu.edu/edservices.htm
Abstract
In this paper, a novel location management scheme, distributed mobile tracking (DMT), is
proposed for routing improvement in Cellular IP networks. A mobile-tracking tree (MT-Tree) for
each active mobile host is established by tracking the movement of the host in DMT. Two
mechanisms, pruning process and growing process, are also proposed to improve DMT.
Packet transmissions can follow the route on the MT-Tree instead of using the gateway route.
Simulation results have shown that DMT has the advantages of shorter routing paths as well
as load balance for wired links over the original gateway-based location management
scheme. Moreover, three multicast protocols for Cellular IP are proposed: GBMP, GBMP-RO,
and MTMP. In GBMP, the gateway is responsible for group management as well as multicast
transmission. Multicast packets received by the base station are first forwarded to the
gateway. The gateway then forwards the packets to each member of the group by multiple
unicasting. GBMP-RO, a modified version of GBMP, adopts the idea of source routing for
multicast transmissions. MTMP is mainly based on the MT-Tree routing scheme. However, if
not all group members can be covered by MT-Tree routing, MTMP will instead adopt GBMPRO for multicast transmission. Simulation results demonstrate that MTMP has the advantages
over GBMP and GBMP-RO in terms of load balance in the Cellular IP network.
Author Keywords: Location management; Cellular IP; Routing; Multicast
Executive Summary
The design project group at AMCE Engineering is involved in the design of a new widget to
reduce the cost of our satellite communication system. The present version of the widget
has been identified as the cause of the AMCE communicator’s low market share. The
design group of which I am a member has been given the task of redesigning the widget to
reduce its cost. The group has determined three different approaches to solving the
problem:
1. Use less costly components in the D/A converter section of the receiver unit and
redesign the control unit.
2. Go to an outside vendor and substitute an “off-the shelf” controller unit, which may have
marginal specifications.
3. Increase the size of the power supply system so that a single power supply can handle
more than one receiver/transmitter unit. This reduces the number of power supplies and,
hence, reduces the cost.
Evaluation of these options, including cost evaluation and technical assessments of each,
results in the following recommendations:
Due to reliability and technical feasibility, it is recommended that AMCE Engineering
accept solution 3. Solutions 1 and 2 should be rejected because the components needed
for these solutions will not have sufficient reliability to make them cost effective.
Abstract / Executive Summary
Results
Purpose
What are the consequences of the problem or issue
that you are discussing?
•What is your reason for writing?
•What is your main idea?
Scope
Recommendations
•What is your focus in this piece?
•
•Where do you concentrate your attention?
•
What solutions do you present to the reader
to resolve the problem or issue in the piece?
Do you recommend action or change?
Conclusions
Method
•What kinds of evidence do you provide?
•How do you try to convince the reader of the
validity of your main idea?
•Do you describe a 'cause and effect' relationship
or explain the origins of this issue or problem?
•What conclusions do you draw from study of the
issue or problem?
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Introduction
Conclusion
Introductions and
conclusions should be
closely linked.
Introductions ask the
questions and pose the
problems. Conclusions
state the answers.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Introduction
Introduction:
Sets the context, poses the problems,
and asks the questions that will be answered in the body
of the
paper. These questions
may be implied or
stated
overtly.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Introduction:What goes into it?
•Why are you presenting this work?
•Where does it fit in the engineering field?
•How does it relate to other
work in the field?
•What are the aims
and objectives
of the
project?
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Introduction:What goes into it?
Set up context
Define scope
Foreshowing / mapping
State problem/thesis/question
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Introduction:What goes into it?
Foreshowing / mapping
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary ,
Repetition is necessary
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Conclusions
The
conclusion
answers
the questions
asked in the
Introduction by connecting
those questions with the
data / evidence supplied in the body.
Therefore, it should be closely related
to the objectives that were stated
in the introduction.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Conclusions
Summarize
Key points
State Conclusion
State Relevance
Give recommendations for
further actions
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Conclusions
Summarize key points
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition,
Repetition is necessary for cognition, Repetition is necessary for cognition
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Body
The content of the body of your writing is
determined by the assignment and purpose
for doing the writing in the first place.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Body
Possible elements include:
•Theory
•Review of literature
•Experimental method
•Results
•Discussion
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Summary
How is a summary used?
The summary is a distillation of the
whole of your work. A summary restates and
reemphasizes key points of the message. A good
summary should guide the readers’
understanding of the text.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
How are
recommendations different
from
conclusions?
Recommendations
A recommendation is a statement that some
action be taken or not taken. These
statements should be supported by the
content of the paper. Recommendations tell
the reader what they should do next.
Report Format
COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
Abstract / Executive Summary
Introduction
Body
Summary/Conclusion/Recommendations
Where Do I Start?
FIRST, KNOW YOUR STUFF!
Strategies for beginning to write a technical report
•Arrange the results of your research (formulas, graphs,
charts, etc) in a logical sequence. Write explanations for each
element.
•FORM DRIVEN: Create a rough outline of the body of your
report, “flesh it out” as best you can, and then work on the
other parts.
•CONTENT DRIVEN: Write down each of the components
and try to “fill in the blanks” by answering the questions
provided in this presentation
Proofreading and Revision
NO, THEY’RE NOT THE SAME!
The difference between proofreading and revision
Revision asks you to look at your work again (re-vision, re-view, reenvision) through the eyes of your audience. ( DO THIS THROUGH
OUT THE WRITING PROCESS, BUT DON’T LET IT GET YOU
BOGGED DOWN)
Proofreading is checking for mechanical (grammatical) problems and
completeness. (DO THIS LAST, DO THIS ONCE)
Proofreading and Revision
Revision
WHY DO IT?
Does your writing say what you think it says?
Do the various parts of your writing fit together?
Do the various parts of your writing do their jobs?
Assignment
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Three paragraphs, 200 words max
Identify your audience
Identify the writer/s
What is your message
Technical Report
Writing
Elements and Standards
A technical report follows a specific layout and format
as specified by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
The Importance of Writing
Engineers perform
technical writing to
communicate pertinent
information that is needed
by upper management to
make intelligent decisions
that will effect a
company’s future.
Project Leadership
Decision
Control
Detailed
Knowledge
Project Engineer
The Importance of Writing
Many engineers spend between 1/3 and 1/2 of their work time
engaged in technical writing. Examples include:
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•
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•
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proposals
regulations
manuals
procedures
requests
•
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•
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technical reports
progress reports
emails
memos
Technical Writing
Technical writing is a type of expository writing this
is used to convey information for technical or
business purposes.
Technical writing is NOT used to:
• entertain
• create suspense
• invite differing interpretations
Front Matter
Text
Back Matter
Back Cover
List of Symbols, Abbreviations,
and Acronyms
Appendixes
References
Conclusion
Results and Discussion
Methods, Assumptions, and
Procedures
Introduction
Summary
List of Tables and Figures
Table of Contents
Abstract
Title Page
Front Cover
Technical Report Layout
Front Matter
The front matter is used to help potential readers
find the report.
Once found, the front matter will help the reader to
quickly decide whether or not the material contained
within the report pertains to what they are
investigating.
Front Matter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cover*
Label*
Title Page
Abstract
Table of Contents
Lists of Figures and Tables
*May be an optional element
Front Matter: Cover*
A cover and label are used if
the report is over 10 pages
long.
The cover (front and back)
provides physical protection
for the printed report. Plastic
spiral bindings and thick,
card-stock paper are
recommended.
*May be an optional element
Front Matter: Label*
A label is placed on the cover to identify:
• Report title and subtitle
(if a subtitle is
appropriate)
• Author’s name
• Publisher*
• Date of publication
Front Matter: Title Page
The title page provides
descriptive information that
is used by organizations
that provide access to
information resources (i.e.,
library).
A title page duplicates the
information found on the
front cover (if one is used).
Front Matter: Abstract
An abstract (informative style) is a short summary
that provides an overview of the purpose, scope,
and findings contained in the report.
Purpose - identifies the issue, need, or reason for
the investigation
Scope
- reviews the main points, extent and
limits of the investigation
Findings - includes condensed conclusions and
recommendations
Front Matter: Abstract
• no more than 200 words*
• provides an “in a nut shell”
description without providing
underlying details
• contains no undefined
symbols, abbreviations, or
acronyms
• makes no reference by
number to any references or
illustrative material
ii
Front Matter: Table of Contents
The table of contents
lists the title and
beginning page
number of each major
section within the
report (excluding the
title page and the
table of contents).
iii
Front Matter: List of Figures and
Tables*
A list of figures and
tables helps the
reader to locate
illustrations, drawings,
photographs, graphs,
charts, and tables of
information contained
in the report.
iv
*May be an optional element
Front Matter: List of Figures and
Tables*
A figure is any drawing, photograph,
graph, or chart that is used to explain
and support the technical information
in the text.
The figure number and title will
appear below the image.
Refer to a figure or table within the
text, and place the image close to the
reference.
*May be an optional element
Front Matter: List of Figures and
Tables*
A table is an arrangement
of detailed facts or
statistics that are
arranged in a row-andcolumn format.
The table number and title
appear above the table.
*May be an optional element
Text
The text is the part of a technical report in
which the author describes the methods,
assumptions, and procedures; presents
and discusses the results; draws
conclusions, and recommends actions
based on the results.
Text
• Summary
• Introduction
• Methods, Assumptions, and Procedures
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusions
• Recommendations*
• References
*May be an optional element
Text: Summary
• States the problem,
method of investigation,
conclusions, and
recommendations
• Contains no new info
that is not contained in
the report
• Does not contain
references
1
Text: Introduction
The Introduction
prepares the reader to
read the main body of
the report.
This page focuses on
the subject, purpose,
and scope of the report.
3
Text: Introduction
Subject
- defines the topic and associated
terminology; may include theory,
historical background, and its
significance
Purpose - indicates the reason for the investigation
Scope
- indicates the extent and limits of the
investigation
Text: Methods, Assumptions, and
Procedures
The methods, assumptions, and procedures used
in the investigation are described so the reader
could duplicate the procedures of the investigation.
Information in this section includes:
• System of measurement
• Types of equipment used and accuracy
• Test methods used
Text: Methods, Assumptions, and
Procedures
Methods
How did you discover the
problem? What measuring
tools were used? What
measurement system was
used?
Assumptions
What do you think, but cannot
substantiate as fact?
Procedures
How did you gain a better
understanding of the problem?
4
Text: Results and Discussion
The results and discussion section describes what
you learned about the problem as a result of your
research, identifies the degree of accuracy related
to your findings, and gives the reader your view of
the significance of your findings.
Text: Results and Discussion
Results
What did you learn about
the problem through your
research?
Discussion
How accurate are your
findings? What is the
significance of the results
of the research?
6
Text: Conclusion
Restatement of Results
What are the factual findings
that resulted from your
research? What are you
implying as a result of these
findings?
Concluding Remarks
What are your opinions
based on the findings and
results?
9
Text: Recommendations*
A section called recommendations is often
included in reports that are the result of tests and
experiments, field trials, specific design problems,
and feasibility studies.
The author may recommend additional areas of
study and suggest a course of action, such as
pursuing an alternate design approach.
*May be an optional element
Text: Recommendations*
Additional Studies
Is there information that
still needs to be learned?
Suggested Actions
What does the author want
the reader to do with the
information?
12
*May be an optional element
Text: References
The references section is
the place where the author
cites all of the secondary
research sources* that
were used to…
• develop an understanding
of the problem
• support the information
contained in the report
14
Back Matter
The back matter supplements and clarifies the
body of the report, makes the body easier to
understand, and shows where additional
information can be found.
Back Matter
• Appendixes*
• Bibliography*
• List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and
Acronyms
• Glossary*
• Index*
• Distribution List*
*May be an optional element
Back Matter: Appendixes*
Anything that cannot be left out of a report, but is
too large for the main part of the report and would
serve to distract or interrupt the flow belongs in the
appendixes. Examples include:
• Mathematical analysis
• Detailed explanations
and descriptions of test
techniques and
apparatus
• Large illustrations
• Technical drawings
• Large tables of data
• Flowcharts
*May be an optional element
Back Matter: Appendixes*
Appendix A
Hose Nozzle Part Drawings
*May be an optional element
Back Matter: List of Symbols,
Abbreviations, and
Acronyms*
If more than five
symbols, abbreviations,
or acronyms are used in
the report, they are to be
listed with their
explanation.
*May be an optional element
Technical Journal Paper
.
Elements of a Technical Report
• Title
• Abstract (Executive Summary)
• Introduction
• Theory and Analysis
• Experimental Procedures
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusion(s)
• Acknowledgments
• References
• Appendix
Writing Style
•Depends on the audience
•More Lively Writing (usually preferred)
– First Person, Active Voice, Past/Present Tense
•More Formal Writing
– Third Person, Passive Voice, Past/Present Tense
•Never use slang
Writing Style
•Use First-Person, Active Voice, Past Tense or
Third-Person, Passive Voice, Past Tense
• Not Recommended: Clean the gallium arsenide
substrates by boiling them in trichloroethylene.
• Not Recommended: I clean the gallium arsenide
substrates by boiling them in trichloroethylene.
• Acceptable: The gallium arsenide substrates
were cleaned by boiling in trichloroethylene.
• Recommended:
We cleaned the gallium
arsenide substrates by boiling them in
trichloroethylene.
Writing Mechanics
• Minimize the use of Acronyms
• If Acronyms are necessary, always define them at the
first use
• Number all equations, tables, and figures
• All tables and figures must have captions.
• All figures must have labeled axes
• All quantities must have units
Writing the Report: An Approach
• Decide on a title
• Create a brief outline with only main section
headings
• Create a more detailed outline with subheadings
• Create an executive summary
• Create the main body of text
• Insert tables, figures, references, and
acknowledgements
Abstract or Executive Summary
• Think of it as a substitute for the report for a busy
reader
• Length never less than three sentences or longer
than a full page. Often 200 words.
• Sentence One: expand on the title
• Sentence Two: why the work was done
• Remainder: key results, with numbers as
appropriate, conclusions, recommendations
Introduction
• This is not a substitute for the report, and so
does not echo the abstract
• Here is the place for context, relation to prior
work, general objective, and approach
Theory and Analysis
• Briefly describe the theory relevant to the
work
• Provide design equations
• Include calculations and computer simulation
results
• Provide values for all key parameters
Experimental Procedures
• Describe Apparatus and Materials
• Show test setups
• If this section is well written, any electrical or
computer engineer should be able to duplicate
your results.
Results and Discussion
• Use tables and graphs
• Consider moving large quantities of raw data,
detailed derivations, or code to an appendix
• Methods of plotting which produce well delineated
lines should be considered
• Results should be critically compared to theory
• Consider limitations in the theory and engineering
tolerances
Conclusion
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•
•
•
Similar to executive summary
Must be concise
Reinforces key ideas formed in discussion
Includes recommendations for future work,
such as implementation of a design
Figures and Tables
• Every figure must have a caption
• All tables must have a title
• Figure/tables are placed after they are mentioned
in the text (all must be mentioned/discussed)
• Make figures/tables first, and then insert into the
text
• Put the figure/table number beside its title, and put
this in a standard location
• Don’t start a sentence with an abbreviation:
Figure vs. Fig.
Acknowledgements
• Keep track of those to be acknowledged-keep
a diary so that you don’t forget anyone
• Include: your sponsor, outside sources
(companies or agencies), other departments on
campus, individuals outside of your team who
have helped
• Be brief
References
• Various formats have been developed. Pick
one you like such as the IEEE Transactions
format
• Decide on a sequence, such as the order they
appear in the text
• Always give full references such that others
may find the item
References (examples)
• [1] A. Student and A. Professor, “Very
Important Project,” in Journal of
Irreproducable Research, vol. 13, no. 9, pp.
25-31, Nov. 2004.
• [2] C. Dean, The Book of Earth-Shattering
Research, Husky Press, Storrs, CT, 2005.
Plagiarism
• Never take the work of others without giving
proper credit
• Never take verbatim sentences/paragraphs from the
literature
• If you feel that you must use verbatim material, use
quotation marks and a reference. Do this
sparingly!
• There are search engines that can find if verbatim
material has been stolen.
• Professors fail students who do this.
• Additional disciplinary action may follow.
Tips for Writing
• Create an outline of your report before you
write it.
• Write the body of the report first. Then
write the front and back matter.
• Have someone proofread your report.
References
National Information Standards Organization. Scientific and Technical Reports Elements, Organization, and Design. ANSI/NISO 239.18-1995
(R1987).
Alley, M. (1996). The craft of scientific writing. (3rd ed.). New York: SpringerVerlag
Day, R. A. (1998). How to write & publish a scientific paper. (5th ed.). CT: The
Oryx Press.
Beer, D., McMurrey, D. (2005). A guide to writing as an engineer (2nd ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lannon, J. M. (1994). Technical writing. NY: Harper Collins College Publishers
Newman, J. M. (2006). Resources for technical and business writing: Glossary.
Retrieved August 3, 2006 from
http://www.lupinworks.com/roche/pages/glossary.php
References
– William Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style (New
York: Macmillian, 2000).
– H. R. Fowler, The Little, Brown Handbook (Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1980).
– G. L. Tuve and L. C. Domholdt, Engineering Experimentation
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966).
– Craig Waddell, Basic Prose Style and Mechanics (Troy, NY:
Rensselaer Press, 1990).
– Joseph Williams, Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace
(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1981).
– ECE Dept, “Engineering Report Writing,” September 2003.